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SUMMARY
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The topic of this thesis is Bethlehem University: A Case Study in the
Development of Higher Education in the Midst of Political Struggle.
There are three major factors involved in the development of
Bethlehem University, three distinct phases in that development, and
numerous contributions that the university has made in the development
of Palestinian society. The three major factors in the
development of Bethlehem University are: the political situation, which
involved the Israeli military; the administration, who were American
Brothers from the LaSalle Brothers Order; and the students, who were
Palestinians.
First the political situation. From 1967, when Israel occupied the West
Bank, until 1987 at the time of the Intifada, the Israeli
authorities had issued over 1200 military orders which controlled every
aspect of daily life on the West Bank. Of these military orders, MO 39,
MO 50, MO 101 and MO 854 had a significant effect on the development of
higher education. Military Order 39 (July 1967) was the first step in
restructuring the judicial system and was designed to separate the West
Bank from both Jordan and Israel and to bring it under the control of
the military administration. Military Order 50 (July 1967) was first
concerned with the censorship of newspapers but was extended to include
all printed material including carving in stone.
Under Military Order 101 (August 1967), without the permission of the
Military Commander, it was forbidden to conduct a protest march or
meeting, to congregate in a group of 10 or more where the subject
concerned or was related to politics. It was also forbidden to raise
flags or other symbols, to distribute or publish a political article, or
pictures with political connotations. It was further forbidden to make
any attempt to influence public opinion in a way that would be
detrimental to public order and security. These censorship regulations
were in accordance with the Defense Regulations (Emergency) 1945. These
emergency regulations were enacted by England during the Mandate in the
1930s because of the Arab Revolt, and again in 1945 prior to the war of
partition. They were revoked by the King of England in April 1948 and
were never in force under Jordanian law. The punishment for
non-compliance to these military orders was a prison sentence up to 10
years and/or a fine. Soldiers were given the authority to use force to
enforce this law.
Military Order 854 was an amendment to Jordanian Law of Education
Number 16, which was a law concerning elementary and secondary
education. MO854 replaced the phrase "Jordanian Ministry of Education"
with the phrase "Officer in the Israeli Military in Charge of
Education," and extended it to include "institutes of learning," which
in effect brought higher education under military control. These four
military orders had a significant impact on the development of higher
education on the West Bank.
The second factor in the development of Bethlehem University was the
administration. Bethlehem University was sponsored by the Vatican and
founded and developed by the Christian Brothers, also known as the
LaSalle Brothers. The Brothers who were commissioned for this task were
Americans. As Americans they placed a high value on the individual. This
was a cultural distinction that conflicted with the cultural norms of
the Palestinians. The goals of the administration were to remain neutral
in politics, to establish and maintain the academic process. They
further intended to train leaders for a new Palestinian society and to
develop in response to the needs of the community. The military orders,
and at times the students themselves, presented a great challenge to the
administration in their efforts to meet these goals.
The third factor for consideration is the students, who of course were
Palestinians. As Palestinians they had a high regard for education. This
was evidenced in the Mandate period when the Palestinians paid over
fifty percent of the cost to increase village schools from 171 to 504 in
number. In the Arab world today Palestinians have the highest enrollment
in schools and are the highest educated. Relative to their population
Palestinians are one of the highest, possibly the third highest educated
in the world.
As committed as the students were to education, they were equally
committed to the struggle for national identity, the early stirrings of
which date back to the Balfour Declaration. In fact the students did not
view the national struggle and education as separate but considered them
as one and the same. The Student Senate and the Palestinian community in
general expected the universities to propagate Palestinian culture and
train future leaders for an independent Palestinian state.
From the onset there existed within these three groups—the Israeli
military, the administration and the students—a distinct difference in
their perception of the role of Bethlehem University in the occupied
West Bank. The Israelis viewed the universities on the West Bank as
hotbeds for terrorism and a threat to security. The administration
viewed Bethlehem University as being neutral in politics, with the
primary purpose of providing an educational opportunity for the future
leaders of a new Palestine. The students viewed the universities as
being the first Palestinian national institutions and as such they were
expected to be very much a part of the national struggle. The
differences in perception between these three groups had a considerable
impact during the various phases of the university's development. The
three phases of development are the early years (from 1973 until 1987),
the years of closure (from 1987 until 1990), and the years of transition
(from 1991 until 1998).
From the first semester following the opening of Bethlehem University,
the differences between the administration, students and the Israeli
military became apparent. The university opened October 1, 1973, and on
October 6 the Yom Kippur War broke out. The Israeli military placed
roadblocks throughout the West Bank as a security measure. One of the
consequences of this security measure was that the students and staff
had limited access to the university campus, so that within the first
week of the opening there was an interruption of the academic process.
On November 30, less than two months after the opening, anti-Zionist
literature was thrown into the classrooms from the outside courtyard.
Following this incident a student came to the administration and
demanded to know what action would be taken. This student, as well as
several other students, had been imprisoned by the Israelis and they
were concerned that when the Israeli authorities found out about the
incident, they would again be arrested. Brother Brendan, the Vice
President of the university, having little experience with the political
situation on the West Bank and coming from a society where there was a
high value placed on the individual, reported the incident to the
Bethlehem Police Department.
After Brother Brendan returned to the campus the students stared at him
with hatred and refused to speak to him. In the students’ opinion it was
seriously wrong to go to the police and Brother Brendan was viewed as
being on the side of the enemy. The students, who placed a higher value
on the community than on the individual, would have preferred that the
few students who had been previously imprisoned be left to take their
chances rather than place all the students in jeopardy.
The Student Senate of Bethlehem University was very active and was
involved in organizing demonstrations, assemblies and Palestinian
cultural events on campus. The Israeli authorities were aware that the
PLO was the guiding force behind the student demonstrations and
disturbances and that they were using the Committee for National
Guidance to engineer these activities. The goal of the CNG was to unify
and consolidate the national community. According to the Israeli
military orders these activities were outlawed and the military would
use force to break up these events. In November of 1974 an organized
peaceful demonstration on campus was raided. One student was shot,
others were beaten and several were arrested. A consequence of these
student activities was the closing of the university and an interruption
of the academic process. The administration would need to schedule
make-up classes which would extend the semesters by weeks and later by
months, much to the distress of the students.
The arrests of students and faculty became common and the administration
was unwillingly forced into the political conflict. The Brothers would
attempt to visit those who were arrested. In addition they would contact
various foreign dignitaries and consuls to inform them of the situation
and to enlist their services. They would also visit the families of
those arrested to pass on any information and to comfort them. The
students were aware of the efforts the administration was making in
these cases and slowly their attitude towards them began to change as
they began to believe that they were there for them.
Military orders requiring censorship of printed material had a
direct effect on the development of the Library. From 1980 no Arabic
books or periodicals were allowed to enter the West Bank, and any
material on Palestine was considered seditious and was therefore
illegal. The development of new programs was often affected, as when the
university was denied a request to add a Tour Guide class. The further
development of the physical buildings on campus, such as the
multi-purpose building, was halted by the denial of building permits.
The authority of the Council of Higher Education was usurped by the
Israeli authorities through MO854. Work permits for faculty were reduced
from annual renewal to renewal every 15 days. University licenses were
renewed through the military annually. Permits to travel from one
district to another affected nursing students.
In November 1981 following demonstrations the university was closed for
18 days; after a Palestinian cultural event in 1983 universities were
closed for two months. Often the military would state that the
university was open but the campus was closed. Closing became a standard
measure in response to student demonstrations and Palestinian cultural
activities. The administration, who were committed to guard the
integrity of the academic program, would reschedule classes and the
semesters were extended far into the summer months. Unfortunately, the
Student Senate activities were also directed against the administration
in the form of student strikes. The students objected to the
administration’s strict adherence to schedule make-up classes and wanted
more control over the academic requirements and the campus.
By the 1980s these student activities had developed into a routine.
There would be a meeting in the auditorium followed by singing
national songs in courtyard, and placing a flag on pole at the entrance
gate. Soldiers would arrive and surround the campus. In reaction to the
soldiers, the students would throw stones. In reaction to the students
throwing stones, the soldiers would fire canisters of tear gas and live
ammunition onto the campus. During one of these routine demonstrations
on campus in September 1987, a student was shot and killed. The military
closed the university for three months. The three-month closure should
have ended in December, but in December the Intifada broke out and the
university remained closed for three years.
In December 1987 the Intifada broke out and all universities on the West
Bank were closed. Israeli authorities held the universities responsible
for inciting unrest. They had long believed that the universities were
hotbeds for anti-Israeli propaganda and this led in their opinion to the
necessity of closing them. According to Article 56 of the Hague
Regulations, it was illegal to raid schools or to close them for
prolonged periods of time. The administration considered this their
legal basis to defy the Israeli military and do everything within their
power to keep the academic process going.
The administration, faculty and staff at Bethlehem University united in
an effort to keep the academic process going. The faculty restructured
courses and the administration arranged for classes to meet at
off-campus locations. These off-campus classes are also referred to as
the Distance Learning Program and the Underground University. Bethlehem
University continued to operate because the Brothers’ residence was on
campus and the staff was allowed access to the campus. This made it
possible for the library and secretarial staff to work in support of the
off-campus classes. The Library staff organized the books the students
would need and photocopied readings and texts.
Classes were held in homes, in basements, hotels, convents, outdoors and
a variety of other locations. They were always under the threat of being
raided by the military and the participants were in danger of being
arrested. Students were not able to take more than two classes per
semester. This political situation actually united the administration
and the students in the national struggle. Each was defying the Israeli
authorities to keep the academic process going.
Students in an Earth Science class used these adverse circumstances to
their advantage by completing a thorough field mapping, sectioning and
sampling of Wadi Ahmad. The Pre-School Teacher program took on a
national scope and expanded as a result of the Intifada. The Nursing
program and the Hotel Management program were able to continue in East
Jerusalem. As a result of the increasing injuries sustained by the
Palestinian youth, the university developed a physiotherapy program
which was begun during the Intifada. Also during these years the
university continued to offer workshops and training classes for
in-service teachers and special courses for the staff. They were also
able to continue research—the faculty continued to publish books and
articles in academic journals.
The three-year closure of Bethlehem University served to remove the
differences that existed between the administration and the students in
that it united them in keeping the academic process going in defiance of
the Israeli military. Each emerged from this period with a greater
respect for one another and a bonding resulted from the intense
experience.
The last phase of development begins with the re-opening of the
university in 1990 and covers the arrival of the Palestinian National
Authority and the 25-year anniversary celebration of Bethlehem
University. Israel was under pressure from the European Parliament and
the European Community to re-open the universities on the West Bank.
They threatened to freeze funds allocated to scientific cooperation with
Israel until the universities were re-opened. In response to this
pressure, Israel announced in March 1990 the gradual re-opening of the
universities on the West Bank. This did not reflect a change in Israel's
perception of the universities and their attitude towards them. They
were still considered a threat to security.
Following the re-opening of Bethlehem University the academic process
was constantly disrupted. The military continued to close the
universities without warning, allowing no time for adjustments or
notices to be given. Roadblocks would be set up within a hundred meters
of the entrance gates, preventing faculty and students from entering.
During these years further interruptions were experienced as a result of
the Gulf War and the sealing off of the West Bank by Israel in 1993.
This was a critical time for the university. The faculty was very
discouraged, since it was impossible to plan with the expectation that
the plans would be realized. For some programs, it was necessary for
off-campus classes to continue to meet. In addition to the uncertainty
caused by the political situation, the faculty had to put much more
effort into the freshmen students to bring them up to a university level
of performance, because education had suffered during these years of the
Intifada.
In July of 1991 the 300 students who had completed their education
through the Distance Learning Program received their degrees. The
unspoken sentiment of each student, faculty member and administrative
personnel was "we are still here and we are here to stay." In 1994 the
universities of the West Bank came under the authority of the
Palestinian National Authority (PNA). While sporadic closings continued,
for the first time in 20 years Bethlehem University was able to move
forward with their building projects and course development without
military censorship. The university is an authorized official member of
the Association of Palestinian Universities and as such they have a
representative with the Ministry of Education. The Student Senate is
still active on campus promoting cultural activities and protesting
through demonstrations and student strikes. Under the PNA the campus is
a free one, and these activities are not disturbed. The 25-year
anniversary celebration of Bethlehem University was a joyous, victorious
event. A new era had been ushered in, one in which there was cooperation
and respect between the government, students and administration.
In conclusion, some of the contributions Bethlehem University has made
to the development of Palestinian society will be considered. From its
inception, Bethlehem University was committed to upgrading education on
the West Bank. This commitment has borne results. The Pre-School Teacher
program has revolutionized early education and the graduates of these
programs are able to secure immediate employment. The SAT program
(Subject Area Teachers), which was first developed by Bethlehem
University, has focused on the intermediate level classes through
training teachers for this specific group. These two programs, which
specialize in a specific age group, have done much to improve the
standard of education for the Palestinian community. The Faculty of
Education also offers an Advanced Diploma in Education and maintains a
center for workshops to upgrade active teachers.
All students at the university are required to take three semesters of
English. The English department has offered and continues to offer
classes to the community. The university has thus assisted the community
in relating to the many non-government organizations which operate on
the West Bank, and through these classes has prepared the participants
with the skills of an international language. The Chemistry department
founded the Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit which keeps an
ongoing database on water quality in the West Bank and Gaza. It is
available to the municipal authorities. Through the Nursing and Hotel
Management programs graduates are able to secure immediate employment.
The attitudes regarding these professions as being unsuitable for women
have changed and this attitude change has helped improve the status of
women within the Palestinian community.
The social interaction of the students through the university has helped
them to understand their Palestinian identity, as students from villages
all over the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem come together to discuss
Palestinian issues and prepare themselves for a future in a new
Palestinian society. They have the opportunity to clarify who they are
and who they want to be within that new society. Many of the leaders in
the Palestinian National Authority are graduates of Bethlehem
University. As leaders of a new Palestine they are fulfilling one of the
common goals of the administration and students.
The administration’s and the students’ high regard for education was the
basis for the staying power needed to endure the political situation and
their own differences. This high regard for education enabled them to
press on to ensure that an easily accessible educational opportunity was
available to high school graduates in Palestine.
Bethlehem University from its founding and through most of its
development was formed and molded in large part through the political
situation and the military occupation. After Oslo, the context in which
the university has been evolving has changed. Since 1993 the West Bank
has been experiencing a time of transition as the peace process which
was begun at Oslo continues. As a result Bethlehem University has had an
opportunity to continue to grow in a more normal environment. The
university is now able to focus on improving the quality of education.
Given the present relationship that Bethlehem University has with the
Palestinian community, it has the opportunity to further develop
community relationships and to be a part of the healing process. The
university is able to provide a forum for dialogue with the various
religious and political groups of the Palestinian and Israeli
communities. Bethlehem University is able now to encourage a more open
and free expression of ideas and hopes for the future, and to be a part
of the date with democracy that awaits the new Palestine.
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