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INTRODUCTION
It is better to light a single candle than
to curse the darkness.
~ Chinese Proverb
The founders of Bethlehem University lit a
candle in the Occupied Territories of the West Bank and today that
candle, Bethlehem University, burns as a torch of victory and as a
testimony to the commitment and perseverance of the Palestinian people.
Historically, the Palestinian people have
had a love for education and dating back before the British Mandate they
have been involved in a struggle for national identity. These two
commitments were forged together and emerged in the Occupied Territories
in the struggle for the development of higher education. The struggle
for higher education was a part of the greater conflict on the West
Bank; for freedom of expression, for the freedom of assembly and for the
economic and social development of the Palestinian people. Bethlehem
University reflects, in its development, these dual passions as played
out within the context of the greater struggle.
From its inception the reality of
circumstances threatened Bethlehem University with failure. The limited
finances, the difficulties of development in a territory under military
occupation and the poor physical facilities all these were warnings that
the venture embarked upon was destined for difficulty. Yet, in the winds
of oppression the candle was lit and although circumstances caused it to
wane on occasion it remains to date alight.
Bethlehem University was founded and
developed in the midst of political strife. While students were
motivated equally by their desire for education and their commitment to
the national struggle, the administration was committed to the academic
process and maintained political neutrality. In spite of these critical
differences as well as the pressure from the Israeli military, Bethlehem
University developed into an educational institution whose academic
status is recognized throughout the world. The focus of this paper is
the evolution of Bethlehem University, the influence of the students and
the political situation on its development and the relationship between
the students and the administration. A case study of Bethlehem
University will offer an understanding of the broader issue of higher
education in the West Bank and the relevance of the university in
Palestinian society.
The results of the case study are based
upon extensive interviews with staff and founding members of Bethlehem
University along with the university archives and other published
research. Chapter One covers the development of Bethlehem University. It
includes a survey of the historical involvement of the Palestinians in
educational pursuits as well as an account of their continued struggle
for national identity. The Israeli Military Orders and Proclamations,
which replaced civil law in the occupied territories, are also reviewed.
Chapter Two presents the founding and the early development of Bethlehem
University until 1987. Chapter Three investigates the years of closure
and the Distance Learning Program that enabled students to continue with
their studies. Chapter Four begins with the re-opening of the university
and the difficulties faced from the re-opening until the arrival of the
Palestinian National Autority in Bethlehem. Chapter Five covers the
transition period from the Israeli military authority to the Palestinian
National Authority. Chapter Six concludes with the 25-year anniversary
of Bethlehem University and conclusions on the development and
contributions of Bethlehem University.
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CHAPTER ONE:
THE CONTEXTUAL
SETTING
The least worthy of you
are the least learned.
~ Arab Proverb
A. Role of
Education in the Palestinian Community
1. Value of Education
Jameel was my best friend growing up.
His family had four children and little money, but Jameel's mother
was determined that her children were going to have a university
degree. I remember her going from place to place when she would hear
of scholarships being offered, and she would fight to get a
scholarship for one of her children. Today, when you enter Jameel's
home you will see on the wall, proudly framed, the degrees of Jameel
and his brothers and sister. (George Fellemon, interview by author,
telephone, Jerusalem, 15 August 1998)
The high regard for education in the
Palestinian community can be seen through the considerable effort
devoted to the establishment of local elementary schools during the
mandate period. In this chapter, a survey of the history of the
Palestinian efforts to open village schools and institutes of higher
learning on the West Bank will be reviewed. An introduction to the
struggle for a national identity followed by a brief summary of the
Military Orders and Proclamations will bring this chapter to a
conclusion. The aforementioned will establish the necessary background
to understand the development of Bethlehem University.
2. Mandate Period
Palestine in 1920 had not had a great deal
of contact with the West since it was a distant and neglected province
in the Ottoman Empire. The village populations led a simple agricultural
based life, in which many would not expect to find a commitment to
higher education, however such a commitment did exist.
During the British Mandate (1920-1948)
villagers contributed more than fifty percent of the funds needed to
establish village schools. In addition to the inestimable non-cash
donations of labor and materials the Palestinians contributed 426,592
Palestinian pounds for village education (Anabtawi 1986:3). This is in
contrast to the government's expenditures on education, which amounted
to 742,402 Palestinian pounds. (Ibid.,9) In 1920 there were only 171
Arab public schools with 10,662 students. In 1946 there were 504 Arab
public schools with 80,000 students. (ASP 1991:647) This advance in
rural education was attributed to the village authorities. These
authorities were responsible for a significant increase of the
Palestinian local population’s financial support of the education
system. (Ibid.,648)
3. Relevant to Needs
Education was relevant to the needs of the
local community especially in the villages where their life was centered
on farming. In the village schools, in addition to general education,
the students were given elementary instruction in agriculture. A part of
this course of study involved the planting of a school garden, which
included nurseries for fruit and forest trees. (Ibid.,646) In the towns
there were two-year courses available at the secondary level.
4. Higher Education
An interest in institutes of higher
learning is evidenced as early as the 1920's with the founding of the
Kadoorie Agriculture School of Tulkarm. Students, upon completion of two
years of secondary studies, were required to complete two years of
agricultural studies followed by one year of teacher training and
management of a school garden training. (Ibid.,649)
The Arab school located at Herod's Gate in
the old city of Jerusalem developed into a university level school by
the 1940's (Khalidi 1991:172,240). In addition to these examples of
institutes of higher learning, there were also the Rashidiya College,
Haifa Trade School and, surprisingly, a Women's Training College in
Mandate Palestine. (ASP 1991:650-654) The interest in opening another
institution was expressed in the 1940's when a prominent family in
Jerusalem requested permission to found a university. This request was
denied by the British Mandate (Fasheh 1984:308).
There are several possible explanations
for the great significance of the Palestinians attachment to learning:
the first could be that the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and the
imposition of the British Mandate in 1920 aroused insecurities in the
Palestinians. Education was an investment that, in the minds of the
Palestinians, would have counter balanced these insecurities. Therefore,
education became a recourse to battle the uncertainties of life.
(Bernard Sabella, Ph.D., interviewed by author September 4, 1997,
Jerusalem)
One could also argue that the significance
attached to education was no more than primordial jealousy and
competition existing between family and kin. Palestinian society has
traditionally been composed of networks of families who place a high
value on honor and position within their society. Education opens the
doors of opportunity offering positions of prestige and honor in the
society.
It is also possible that the introduction
of Missionary Schools in the mid-nineteenth century promoted both the
love of education as well as the jealousy surrounding it. (Ibid.)
Missionary schools originally were to serve the Christians but
eventually they attracted the bourgeoisie middle class of Palestinians.
The missionary schools tended to offer topics such as languages,
literature and philosophy rather than practical skills. The choice for
these topics may have been affected by the need of the British Mandate
for lower echelon of employees. Even today, a majority of Palestinians
end up in academic subjects rather than technical and practical studies.
The current system of higher education, in general, tends to be academic
rather than technical. Bethlehem University is a mixture of vocational,
professional and academic studies. (Sabella, interview)
5. Conclusion
Whatever the motivation, Palestinians have
consistently been in support of the development of educational
opportunities for the benefit of their population. With Israeli
occupation in 1967 and the closing of the West Bank and Gaza Strip from
the neighboring Arab countries the felt need for higher educational
opportunities closer to home emerge. Therefore, a system of higher
education began to develop to absorb the thousands of high school
graduates who had no place to study. While the system remained mostly
academic, it served the purpose of absorbing the young people who would
have become unemployed upon graduation from high school.
B. Higher Education
on the West Bank
Within the context of an occupied
territory, higher education developed in the West Bank. To date there
are six universities, ten community colleges, four training centers and
three government training facilities (JMCC 1990:2).
Palestinians are foremost among Arab nations in level of education and
school enrollment. Munir Fasheh claims that the number of university
graduates among the Palestinians relative to the population is one of
the highest in the world, possibly the third highest. (Fasheh 1984:308).
Birzeit University blazed the trail for
the development of universities in the West Bank. In 1951 the first
class beyond the secondary level was added to the existing high school.
Ten years later a second class was added and in 1962 it was recognized
as a College. Birzeit expanded from a two year to a four-year program
and since 1976 has been recognized as a university by the Association of
Arab Universities and the International Association of Universities
(1977).
The Birzeit academic program includes the
major fields of Arts, Science, Commerce, Economics, and Engineering as
well as a number of minor fields. They also have Courses for
International Students in the Arabic language and in Middle East-related
social sciences. Today the university student population is about 4,200.
Bethlehem University is also recognized by
both the Association of Arab Universities, the International Federation
of Catholic Universities, the Lasallian Association of Colleges and
Universities, and the Middle East Studies Association of North America.
It was founded in 1973 by the Vatican.
The largest university in the West Bank is
An-Najah National University located in Nablus. An-Najah expanded from a
college to a university in 1977 and was the first university in the
territories to offer a Master's Degree program. A few of the programs
leading to Bachelor and Master Degrees are in the fields of Arts,
Science, Economics, Education, Psychology, Engineering, Islamic Law,
Agriculture, Fine Arts and Pharmacy. The university population is
approximately 7,000 students. An-Najah has been a member of both
Associations of Arab Universities and the International Association of
Universities since 1981.
An-Najah also runs three research centers:
first, the Rural Research Center with the goal of linking the university
and the local community; second, the Documentation, Manuscript and
Publication Center; third, the Higher goals.
The Hebron University is located in a town
by the same name. Today it provides education for over 1,700 students.
It not only provides educational opportunities at the university level,
but established an elementary school in 1985 as well. There are four
departments in its College of Arts and there is a college of Islamic
Studies.
C. The National Struggle
Knowledge of human nature
is the beginning and end of political education.
~ Henry Adams
1. Zionism and Foreign Occupation
Palestinians deeply resent Zionism and
foreign occupation. The earliest stirring of Palestinian nationalism
came in reaction to Zionism (1897) and to British support of the
establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. In 1908, the first
Palestinian newspaper, al-Karmil, was established in Haifa with the goal
of fighting land transfers from Arab to Jewish ownership. (Kimmerling
Migdal 1994:38)
Moslem and Christian associations were
formed in 1919 to protest the Balfour Declaration. In that same year the
first Palestinian National Congress met in Haifa and demanded that the
British recognize the independence of the Arab Palestinian population
and bring an immediate halt to Jewish immigration. The Arab Executive
elected by the Congress was recognized by the British as the political
representative of the Arab community in Palestine. The first modern
Palestinian political party was formed in 1932. It was named the
Istiqlal, meaning independence. The Istiqlal established an Arab
Agricultural Bank in order to consolidate and develop Arab land
dwellings and the Istiqlal revived the Arab Chamber of Commerce. (Cohen,
1982:185-186)
A general strike was declared by the Arab
Executive in 1933, and there were mass demonstrations protesting British
rule and again demanding independence and a halt to Jewish immigration.
These demands, which highlighted the issues involved in the early
struggle of Palestinian national identity, were Jewish immigration and
self-rule. (Kimmerling, Migdal 1994:39)
In 1936 national committees were
established in towns and villages and the Jerusalem Committee adopted
the slogan: "No taxation without representation". There was a general
strike and Arab political parties and organizations formed the Arab
Higher Committee, which became the leadership for the Great Arab Revolt.
2. United Nations Partition Plan
In November 1947, the UN General Assembly
adopted Resolution 181, recommending the establishment of Jewish and
Arab states in Palestine and the internationalization of Jerusalem. The
Palestinians and the Arab states rejected this plan of partition.
It was the middle of the night
when the Jews came knocking loudly at our door instructing us to
leave and go to Jaffa Gate. My father was blind and I was a young
child, I remember being frightened as my mother guided our family,
all of us still in our nightclothes, to the city gate. There were
many of our neighbors already there, and we stood together waiting,
welcoming each new arrival with the hope that they would bring to us
an understanding of what was going on. After some time, our family
received word from arriving neighbors that the Jews were taking all
our furniture and possessions from our house and putting them in a
truck, which they then drove away. We were never allowed to return
to our home, the Jews gave it to Jews who came from Europe. My life
was forever changed.
(Personal communication with Shofiqa Hashweh)
The struggle for national identity evolved
into a full- scale war at the time of the establishment of the State of
Israel. This war is known among the Palestinians as al Nakba, meaning
The Disaster. Following this war, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians
became refugees throughout the world. Jordan annexed the West Bank and
Egypt took over the Gaza Strip. The population of the West Bank remained
under Jordanian rule until 1967. The Palestinians in the Diaspora
continued to nurture their dream of an independent Palestinian state and
their return to the homeland. By 1967, when the West Bank came under
Israeli Military occupation, the passion for a national identity had
long burned in the bosom of the population.
The political movement for an independent
Palestinian state was incubated in the Palestinians’ reaction to Jewish
immigration and born in the indignation of foreign occupation.
Fundamental in understanding the Palestinian national movement is an
understanding of the deep resentment Palestinians have towards Zionism
and foreign occupation.
D. Military Rule
The West Bank was annexed by Jordan after
the war of 1948 and as a result of this the Palestinian population was
entitled to Jordanian citizenship and was governed by Jordanian law.
Under Jordanian law there were three categories of Courts: the regular
courts, the ecclesiastical and Sharia courts, and special tribunals.
Magistrate courts were in every sub-district a Court of First Instance
in every district. There was one Court of Appeal in Amman another in
Jerusalem and finally a Court of Cassation in Amman. The Court of
Cassation hears appeals and also sits as a High Court of Justice.
When in 1967 the West Bank came under
Israeli control, Israel’s view was that the West Bank and Gaza were
administered territories. The rationale behind this was that the West
Bank and Gaza were not previously recognized as belonging to another
state and therefore were not occupied territories. Israel based their
premise on the idea that these territories were not recognized as the
possession of Jordan or Egypt, nor were they ever the possession of
Israel. Therefore, Article 2 of the 1949 Geneva Convention IV did not
apply to Israel’s administration of the West Bank and Gaza. (Roberts,
Joergensen, and Newman, 1984, 21-22)
Israel issued Proclamation No. 2, which
stated that "All laws which were in force in the area on June 7, 1967,
shall continue to be in force. . .". Through this proclamation, the
commander of the Israeli Army was given "legislative power" over all
legislative, executive and judicial decisions. (JMCC 1993:1)) However,
by July 16, 1967 the Court of Cassation was abolished through Military
Order No. 39 which was the first step in replacing Jordanian civil law
with military law. (Rabah, Fairweather 1993:6) By the end of the first
month of occupation over 40 orders of major importance were issued.
Between 1967 and 1971, the Israeli authorities issued 400 Military
Orders which were not published and were not available to attorneys. At
the time of the Intifada, December 1987, there were approximately
1,213 Military Orders. (Shehadeh 1993:103)
Proclamation No. 3 established the
military courts and the "security" offenses. It authorized arrests
without warrants and detention up to 18 days that were renewable without
charge or trial. It also allowed the search of homes without warrants. (JMCC
1993:1)
The Israeli Military Orders (MO)
established control over everything from immovable property (MO-25) to
land disputes (MO-164) and the use of water and other natural resources
(MO's 58,59,92). Military orders (MO 47,49) made it illegal to import or
export agricultural products without military permission. Control over
the movements of individuals was established through a system of
identity cards, travel permits, driver licenses and licenses permitting
the practice of various professions (MO 215,260,324,437).
The Military gained control over the
Municipal Councils and other Village Councils. (MO's 191,194) It became
illegal for more than 10 people to congregate together to listen to a
political speech or to deliberate on a political subject (MO-101) and
there was a ban placed on printed material without special military
permission (MO-50).
In this environment the demand for
education increased. In 1968 there were only 142,000 students on the
West Bank but by 1976 there were 230,000 and three universities had
opened with a total enrollment of 2,500. (Ishaq, Smith 1982:11). Daily
life had become confining for the Palestinians. They perceived that
every movement and interaction was controlled by military orders and
enforced by the ever-present Israel Defense Forces. In these conditions
they pursued the only avenue open for them, the freedom of movement that
was within their minds. This was the one area that Israel could not
control.
The Palestinians reasoned that investment
in education was superior to land investment and agriculture.
Traditional investment in land became a less viable option due to
Israeli confiscation of property. Further, there was an increase in wage
labor which provided a higher return than agriculture. In response,
Palestinians turned to investing in their minds which resulted in the
establishment of universities. What troubled the Palestinians was that
military orders also controlled and regulated education.
The military government issued Mo-101
(August 27,1967) which required all reading materials, books and
periodicals entering the West Bank to pass through the military censor.
Although MO-854 (July 6, 1980) was the only military law devised
specifically to address higher education it was comprehensive, extending
control over curriculum, admissions and selection of faculty (JMCC
1990:12).
Prior to 1967, any student from the West
Bank wishing to pursue higher educational goals traveled to Arab
institutions in surrounding countries. Besides the universities, there
were institutions that preserved national identity through sponsoring
Palestinian cultural events and focused Palestinians on programs of
self-reliance. These Arab countries, however, had a fixed quota, and the
process for application was long and complicated. When in 1967 the West
Bank came under Israeli occupation, it became necessary to receive a
laissez-passer. This was a travel document or a special permit that
was valid for one trip per year and was renewable twice through an
Israeli embassy abroad. It was necessary for the student to return to
the occupied territories within three years in order to keep their
residency status. The laissez-passer was issued through the
military authorities and was a very lengthy process (JMCC 1990:5). These
restrictions on travel and the length of stay abroad made it impossible
for Palestinian youth to pursue a university education in another
country.
In 1967, for the first time, the majority
of Palestinians came under Israeli control. It was at this time that
many new leaders emerged from among the educated refugees. Status was
now derived from education and not from a traditional place in an
agricultural society (Kimmerling, Migdal 1994:208). The "jil al-thawra"
(revolutionary generation) developed a new self-understanding which gave
birth to three heroic images. First was Feday (a guerilla), "one who
sacrifices himself," a holy warrior who was portrayed wrapped in a
kafiya holding a Kalachnikov (an automatic weapon) ready to sacrifice
himself in the battle against Zionism.
Second was Samud (steadfastness): the
passive hero who endures humiliation and oppression to remain on his
land. Samud applied also to those who remained in the territories at all
cost.
Third was the counterpart to the Samud
which is the Shabab, (the child of the stone): the youth who confront
the enemy through the throwing of rocks and the burning of tires. (Kimmerling,
Migdal 1994:212)
Universities became important national
institutions. Anabtawi describes them as:
Citadels for the preservation of Palestinian culture and as active
socializing agents for the perpetuation and ultimate realization of
the national dream. (Anabtawi 1986:9)
Typically universities held activities
that propagated Palestinian culture such as Art Festivals that featured
Palestinian artists, folklore and dance. The student senate was involved
in politicizing the university. They kept the student informed of
current issues relating to Palestinian affairs through rallies, and
calling strikes.
Universities were also seen as a bastion
of defiance to Israeli rule. They helped to discourage migration and
were developed in hopes that in the future they would serve as a nucleus
for governmental agencies when independence was attained. (Ibid.,57)
Restrictions were placed on the
universities from their inception. Israel viewed universities as hotbeds
of radicalism, schools of terrorism and centers of political incitement
and activity. There was an element of truth to this because there was a
segment of the student population who were highly political and
radically anti-Israel. Therefore, any display of national feelings by
the Palestinians was considered a threat to Israeli security. (Aruri
1984:321) For example, in April 1980, Bethlehem University was warned
not to allow their students to wear T-shirts that had green, black and
red streaks because they were the colors of the new Palestinian flag. (Shehadeh
1993:159)
Military harassment of the universities
dates back as early as November 1974 with the deportation of the
President of Birzeit College. (JMCC 1990:16) The first student wounded
at Birzeit by Israel Defense Force discharge was on March 4, 1979. Two
months later the university was closed for two months. In April 1980 two
hundred soldiers raided Ramallah Teacher Training College resulting in
the injury of twenty-four students, the arrest of forty-one others and
the closure of the college. In November, four students and three
visitors were arrested at a military checkpoint which was preventing
entry to Birzeit's annual "Palestine Festival". In December, the Israel
Defense Forces surrounded Birzeit University and detained students for
ten hours. (JMCC 1990:6)
In July 1980, Military Order 854 was
issued as an amendment to Jordanian Education Law Number 16 and the
Regulation of Teaching Licenses Number 23. These laws applied to
Elementary Education. In the amendment, the phrase Jordanian Ministry
of Education was substituted with the phrase Officer in the
Israeli Military in charge of Education. In effect, Military Order
854 extended the authority of the Israeli military to the universities
and colleges on the West Bank. The amendment was in itself a law. (JMCC
1990:14)
Military Order 854 gave control to the
Israeli military over accreditation, work permits, teaching, licenses,
academic curricula and academic libraries. The Palestinian Council of
Higher Education defined accreditation as part of their proper function,
however, due to MO 854, they were restricted by the occupation
authorities and were unable to fulfill this function. (Aruri 1984:236)
This measure of control was viewed as extreme by many, so much so that
the faculty committee of Hebrew University condemned MO 854 in their
Report on the Condition of
Universities in the Occupied Territories
published in October 1981.
Through the amendment to the Regulation of
Teaching Licenses the occupation authorities were able to deny a work
permit to anyone who was considered a security threat. The faculty work
permits were reduced from one year to six months, then to three months,
then to one month and finally to fifteen days. These permits were
granted and revoked by the education officer and instructors could be
barred from teaching if they had ever been under administrative
detention. (Ibid.,330)
The Civil Administration assumed the right
to license institutions of higher education. The Education Officer
retained the authority to revoke a license. Also, institutions were
required to renew their licenses annually. (Ibid.,328)
The selection of curriculum was
traditionally the responsibility of the academic council. Under Military
Order 854, the Civil Administration was given the authority to delay or
prohibit the institution of new programs. In effect, this enabled them
to control curriculum and extracurricular activities. (Ibid.,232)
All library acquisitions were censored and
restrictions were placed on the selection of books. By 1977, the Civil
Administration had banned 1,187 books. The list of banned books
continued to grow because all books entering the territories first had
to receive permits from an army censor (MO 50 July 11, 1967).
In spite of these restrictions
universities developed in the West Bank. Bethlehem University was
originally sponsored by the Vatican and opened in 1973 with the purpose
of offering young people in the West Bank an opportunity for higher
education. It was hoped that this opportunity for higher education would
result in a lower emigration rate among the youth, more specifically
among the Christians who tended to have higher rates of emigration
compared to the rest of the population.
Bethlehem University was open to people of
faiths other than Christianity and provided services to the entire
community. As a coeducational institution, Bethlehem University also
contributed to the reshaping of the social structure of the West Bank.
Military orders had a definite impact on
the foundation and development of institutions of higher learning. The
impact of these orders as they affected the Bethlehem University will be
considered and discussed in the following chapters.
The contextual setting for the development
of higher education on the West Bank was one in which there was a
commitment to education and now an active involvement in the national
struggle. In 1967, when the West Bank came under Israeli control the
existing Jordanian law was replaced with military orders and
proclamations which addressed every aspect of daily life. These factors
greatly affected the development of higher education in the territories.
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CHAPTER TWO:
FOUNDING AND EARLY
DEVELOPMENT
OF BETHLEHEM UNIVERSITY
A. The Visit of Pope Paul VI
1. The Vatican's Vision
A university should be a
place of light, of liberty, and of learning.
~ Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield
Although for centuries Christians
maintained a presence in the Holy Land they tended, for various reasons,
to have a higher emigration rate than the rest of the population. After
1967, the high rate of Palestinian Christian emigration continued as a
result of the oppressive political situation, the lack of employment
opportunities and the absence of educational opportunities under Israeli
occupation. Principals of Christian private schools discovered that
their students were going abroad for further studies and not returning.
The Vatican was interested in keeping a Christian presence in the Holy
Land therefore Palestinian Christian emigration was of grave concern for
Pope Paul VI when he made his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1964.
Motivated by the overwhelming needs of the
Palestinians the Vatican expressed an interest in establishing a project
which would benefit Palestinians in general and the Christians of
Palestine in particular. Through the auspices of the Vatican, the
Effrita training and boarding school for the deaf and dumb was
established in Bethlehem 1971. In 1972, through the patronage of the
Vatican, the Tantur Ecumenical Center for theological studies was
opened.
Also in 1972 principals of the Christian
High Schools in Jerusalem and Bethlehem were called to a meeting by
Msgr. Pio Laghi the Apostolic Delegate of the Vatican in Jerusalem.
Msgr. Laghi asked those present that he be informed of any locality that
could be used for a project for the youth. In attendance at this meeting
was Brother Jean Manuel FSC who was then principal of an elementary and
high school, the Ecole des Friars. This school was located near the
entrance to Bethlehem and the property extended to more than seventeen
dunams.
Brother Manuel was of the opinion that the
Friars school property was a waste of resources since the number of
students was less than 300 and there were other schools in the area
offering a similar service. (Brother Jean Manuel, interviewed by author,
tape recording, Bethlehem 4 July 1998 also recorded in Memories
of a Foundation, Manuel 1998:1) With the approval of the
Provincial Brother Ildefonse Khoury, the Apostolic Delegate Msgr. Laghi
was informed of the availability of property in Bethlehem for the use of
the Vatican's project.
The principals of the Christian High
Schools were once again gathered together. They were informed at this
time that the project would be an institution where the level of
instruction of teachers in elementary and high schools would be
upgraded. This would ultimately benefit the youth because their level of
education would be improved.
There were at that time 42,000 students in
the Catholic elementary and high schools who upon graduation had no
possibility of further education or training. (BUA:1.003) These
graduates would be forced to travel abroad for higher education
resulting in the continued emigration of the Christian population. This
argument was presented to the Vatican and accepted in January of 1973.
The Vatican asked Brother Charles Henry, Superior General of the
Christian Brothers to appoint three Brothers to develop a Junior
College. A committee was then formed consisting of principals of
Catholic and private schools in order to discuss the curriculum of the
studies to be established, the appointment of faculty and the remodeling
of the main building on the Bethlehem property.
2. Transition: Teachers College to University
During the months of September through
November 1972 the committee met regularly. Brother Manuel was convinced
himself that the project the youth would most benefit from was a full
four-year university. During one of the committee meetings Brother
Manuel suggested that there be a change in the Vatican project from a
two-year College to an institution which could be developed into a four
year program leading to Bachelor degrees. Msgr. Laghi agreed and
referred the matter to the Vatican. (Manuel, interview)
On January 9, 1973 a committee consisting
of Rev. Father Core, Rev Brother Jean Manuel, Miss Helen Breen, Miss
Carolyn Hunnybun and Miss Beatrice Griffiths met to clarify the purpose
of such a college and to define the necessary financial aid to establish
and subsidize it through the early years. Brother Manuel states that in
the discussions eventually the term university came to be used in
reference to the projected establishment of a school of higher studies.
Goals were set in accordance with the concept of a university. What had
begun as a project for the youth, through improving the standard of
education with a two year Teachers College, evolved into the opening of
the first university on the West Bank.
A Canadian Committee was formed whose task
it was to survey the needs of the Palestinian community. The
recommendation of this committee, as understood by Brother Manuel, was
that the community was in need of a library, science building and a
Multi-Purpose Building. The renovation of the donated facility into
classrooms, administrative offices, cafeteria, and faculty meeting room
was begun. Brother Manuel became involved in recruiting faculty from the
local area.
In 1973, there was not a full four year
university in existence in the occupied territories (Birzeit was a
two-year college). The vision of Bethlehem University was to create a
four-year university. The university was not a natural next step to the
existing Friars secondary school, but was developed independently as a
project of the Vatican and from the opening day was a university. That
is to say it consisted of a number of colleges and was authorized to
confer Bachelor degrees.
B. Administration and Faculty
1. The Christian Brothers
At the Vatican's request the Christian
Brothers took over the development of Bethlehem University. The Order of
the Christian Brothers had been involved in establishing schools in
Bethlehem since 1878. The administrative team from the United States had
received a request from the Superior General to open a Teacher Training
College in Bethlehem. When they arrived they were surprised to learn
that they were expected to open a university. (Brother Brendan
Fitzgerald, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 6 October
1998) The team consisted of three Brothers from the United States:
Joseph Neary, FSC, the first President; Brendan Fitzgerald FSC, Vice
President and Director of Student Admissions; and Antony O'Connor, FSC,
Academic Dean.
2. Faculty
Teachers qualified to teach freshman level
classes were found among the faculty of the Friars School. They were
quickly recruited along with local professors and in at least one case a
professor was recruited from abroad.
Dr. Walid Djanai, a private businessman
living in Lebanon, was invited to return to Bethlehem and develop the
Institute of Hotel Management and the Tourism Department for Bethlehem
University in 1973. Djanai left everything and took up the challenge,
believing that education was the key to the Palestinians future. (Walid
Djanai, interviewed by author, tape recording, Jerusalem 3 October 1998)
Bethlehem University opened with a faculty
of fourteen, three of whom held Ph.D.’s. Five of the faculty were of the
Islamic faith and nine were of the Christian faith.
C. Opening of
Bethlehem University 1973-1987
1. Students
We had a sense of being a
pioneer. . . of creating a community.
~ Jacqueline Sfeir
On the morning of October 1, 1973, the day
the University was scheduled to open, Brother Brendan Fitzgerald
received a phone call from the military governor, of the West Bank,
telling him not to open the University because he did not have military
permission. After explaining that he had authorization from the military
governor in Bethlehem, he was then informed that this certificate
pertained to the town of Bethlehem only and that the university was
serving the entire West Bank. Brother Brendan called Pio Laghi, the
Apostolic Delegate in Jerusalem, for guidance and was told to "go
ahead". (Fitzgerald, interview)
Bethlehem University officially opened on
October 1, 1973, with the authorization from the Israeli authorities in
Bethlehem and was accredited by the Union of Catholic Universities. It
offered a four year undergraduate program in liberal arts, sciences and
business administration. There was also a two-year program in Hotel
Management and a two-year in-service program for practicing teachers.
Religious leaders who recognized the university included the Latin,
Greek and Armenian Patriarchs as well as others.
Jacqueline Sfeir, currently Dean of the
Faculty of Education, was one of the first students in 1973. She
attributes Bethlehem University with giving her an opportunity which
otherwise she never would have had.
Bethlehem University gave options when there were no options. We all
knew we were part of something that was going to go on and that was
very exciting. There was a sense of being a pioneer.
(Jacqueline
Sfeir, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 9 September
1998)
Also among the first students at the
opening of the university was Nabeel Mufdi, now the Director of the
Hotel Management Program. At first, the Hotel Management classes were
held in the basement that had previously been a chicken coop. The
students received practical experience in the food and beverage class by
preparing meals for special events hosted by the university. (Nabeel
Mufdi, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 6 October 1998)
Two weeks after the opening Brother
Brendan was notified to come pick up the necessary certificate for
opening the university from the governor of all the West Bank. He was
informed at that time that the governor had not sent the military to
interfere with the opening because he was showing them kindness.
(Fitzgerald, interview) October 6th, 1973 was the beginning
of Yom Kippur War and he probably had no one to send, at least in the
early period.
2. Finances
The budget for Bethlehem University was
extremely limited, funding came from tuition, local donation and foreign
organizations. Financial aid came from the Pontifical Mission, the
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the Catholic Relief Organization, the
World Lutheran Foundation, the Mennonite Mission, the Swedish Lutheran
Mission and the Congregation of Oriental Churches. Without the benefit
of the non-salaried Brothers in administration and the Theresians who
staffed the library it would have been stretched beyond its resources.
3. Facilities
Three classrooms and the basement were
made available for the university. There was no space available for
students waiting between classes. The toilets were not in working order
on the historic day of opening and the custodian failed to arrive for
work. (Manuel, 1998:2)
We were not looking at what we did not
have, we were looking at what we did have. I was a science student.
. .when we started we had nothing but pictures. . our lab was
in local factories, our teachers were innovative. When we needed
direct current for electro-dialysis our teacher brought in his car
battery. We used to go to the Horseshoe, a local ice cream shop, and
order choclamoo which was served in thermos cups, which became our
calories counters when we returned back to school. We were not high
tech but we were never lacking experience. Our teachers made
chemistry a part of our lives. . . chemistry was a part of our
lives.
(Sfeir, interview)
The Library recommended by the Canadian
Committee consisted of a collection of 525 volumes (Arabic 100 English
425) and a staff of two. It was located on the ground floor of the main
building in a small room. The Science Building and the Multi-Purpose
Building, also the recommendation of the Canadian Committee, were in the
planning stages.
4. Admissions
The Admissions for students required the
completion of the Tawjhi, the government examination, with a 75% in the
literary stream and 70% in the scientific stream. Easy access and low
fees had successfully opened the door of higher education to refugees,
women, and the poor of the West Bank for the first time in history.
An announcement of the opening of the
university was run twice in the local newspaper giving prospective
students registration information. Others heard by word of mouth and
over two hundred applications were received. From these applicants
ninety-six were accepted. A simple card announcing the opening of
Bethlehem University was sent to dignitaries and local friends. In spite
of such a humble beginning and without notice having been given to the
press, corps of newsmen arrived to interview the president on opening
day. These interviews were broadcast in both Arabic and Hebrew.
5. Political Developments
Five days following the opening of
Bethlehem University on October 6, 1973, the administrative team was
spending the day cleaning the garden on the university grounds which
were still functioning as an elementary school. Brother Brendan recalls
that he was trying to convince some of the children to help in this
effort when sirens went off; it was the beginning of the Yom Kippur war.
Roadblocks and security measures made it difficult for teachers and
students to reach the university each day. Following the war there were
only eighty-six students and by the end of the year they were down to
seventy-seven. This drop has been attributed to parents who were
concerned that it was too dangerous to allow their children to travel
the distance to the university. (Fitzgerald, interview)
On November 30, 1973, anti-Zionist
literature was thrown into the classrooms from the outside courtyard.
There was a strong reaction by several students who had been imprisoned
by the Israeli authorities in the past and were afraid that if they were
arrested again it would be for life. One of these students came to
Brother Brendan's office and demanded to know what he was going to do
about it. This student's fear was that the Israelis would find out
because he believed that the Israelis knew everything that transpired
and that he would again be imprisoned. (Ibid.,BUA:85) Brother Brendan,
having little experience with the political situation on the West Bank
and coming from a society where there was a high value placed on the
individual, decided to take a sample of the leaflets and report the
incident to the Bethlehem Police Department. His expectation was that
this would be the end of it, instead he was roughly questioned for forty
minutes then hustled into a jeep and returned to the campus.
(Ibid.BUA,1974)
Following this incident the students on
campus all glared at Brother Brendan with hatred and refused to speak to
him. Finally he was able to get the attention of one of the students who
spoke English well and asked him why this apparent contempt existed
toward him. He was then informed that, in the students opinion, Brother
Brendan had done something very wrong by going to the Israeli police and
was viewed as being on the side of the enemy. The students, who placed a
higher value on the community than on the individual, would have
preferred that the few students who had been previously imprisoned be
left to take their chances rather than place all the students in
jeopardy (Ibid.)
The administrative team was facing not
only the challenge of opening a university in an occupied territory on a
limited budget without proper facilities and equipment. They were also
steeped in cross-cultural relationships. Further, they were caught in
the crossfire of a political situation for which nothing in their past
experience had prepared them to deal. In these early years the Brothers
spent many hours seeking to understand their students’ reactions to
current events and where they lacked understanding they held on to their
faith to help them through.
D.
Feasibility Study 1974
1. Findings
In 1974 an appraisal and feasibility study
of Bethlehem University was conducted. After considerable work it was
concluded that the 4300 high school graduates who were qualified and
available to attend university warranted a need for the continuation of
Bethlehem University. Both the Canadian Committee and the 1974
feasibility study provided important guidance for the development of
Bethlehem University. This feasibility study further revealed that 53.3%
of all teachers in West Bank and Gaza schools were unqualified and
suggested that the university should make the advancement of
teacher-training one of its major goals. Other goals included the
development of professional leadership for the social and economic
future of West Bank Palestinians, the development of a managerial class
of technologists and the practical application of native research.
2. Recommendations
The feasibility study deemed that the
curriculum should relate directly to the needs of the area and represent
a growth in applied knowledge to improve both social and economic life.
It should also stimulate strong leadership in all phases of community
development.
The research committee considered the
study of religion a basic academic discipline but they felt that
Bethlehem University should be a "regional university" rather than a
"Christian university". Even though in 1974, 60% of the students were
Christian (most of the students were drawn from the local area which in
1974 was largely a Christian population). Also determined was that the
University was to be neutral in politics and would not allow
demonstrations and overt political acts.
E.
Developments 1975-1977
1. Hotel Management
In spite of the difficulties mentioned
above twelve students graduated from the Institute of Hotel Management
on October 10, 1975 two years after opening. Notables from Jerusalem and
Bethlehem were invited to the graduation ceremony as were hoteliers and
parents of the students. In all there were about a hundred in
attendance.
Abu Al Walid Dajani, founder and first
Director of the Hotel Management program, recalls that there was not one
female student among these first graduates. He explains, the attitude of
the local population was that hotel management was related to running a
brothel and parents would not allow their daughters to take such a
class. It seems this opinion was strong enough among the Palestinians
that Dajani was challenged on why the University would offer such a
course! (Djanai, interview)
Another tribute to the administrative
teams’ high level of commitment is that in October 1975 the Friars
School relocated. All of the facility was now available for the
University’s expansion and development.
2. Nursing
Responding to the critical need for
trained nurses on the West Bank and Gaza and at the request of local
physicians a proposal was made that Bethlehem University develop a
College of Nursing to help meet this need. An Advisory Board of six
doctors was formed and a grant was received from The United States
Agency for International Development (A.I.D.) to assist in starting the
nursing college. In August of 1976 a full time Director, Sister
Margaret, was appointed.
The immediate tasks at hand for Sister
Margaret were to ascertain the specific needs, develop a curriculum and
propose standards for admission. By the end of 1976 the first courses in
nursing had begun. Because the West Bank is a rural area, the main focus
of the college was on community nursing with an emphasis on the
development of skills in health maintenance and disease prevention.
Clinical experience was available to students in local centers and
included basic nursing, medical, surgical, orthopedics, operating room,
ophthalmic, tuberculosis, obstetrics, pediatrics, community and
psychiatric.
The Nursing program faced the challenge of
overcoming the attitudes of the local community towards a woman training
and working in the nursing profession. There was strong resistance to a
woman coming in contact with a male, in the way it was perceived she
would, through nursing. This obstacle was overcome and today young women
who enter the nursing program are able to chart a future with assurance
of employment. (Violet Fasheh, interviewed by author, tape recording,
Bethlehem 5 February 1999)
3. The First Graduation
Brother
Brendan led the line and the academic procession was a panorama
of different colors. . . the overwhelming feeling was 'it
worked'.
~ Brother Joe Lowenstien
June 26, 1977, at the first Graduation
Ceremony, twenty-four graduates received a Bachelor of Arts Degree,
twelve a Bachelor of Science Degree, six received a Bachelor of Business
Administration (School of Business Administration), and from the School
of Education ten received an Education Diploma. There were fourteen
graduates from the Institute of Hotel Management who received a Diploma
in Hotel Management.
This was the first university graduation
in the history of the West Bank. Jacqueline Sfeir was among the first
graduates and she describes the graduation as being a festive, emotional
celebration that marked the end of the beginning.
4. Library
On October 15, 1977 the Library moved into
its new building. The students had worked to construct shelves and were
involved in other forms of physical labor necessary for the opening of
the new facility.
Within four years Bethlehem University had
graduated 78 students and met its obligation to build a facility for the
Friars School. Further, it opened a new Library Building with a capacity
of 100,000 volumes and seating for 350. The faculty had increased to
include fifteen professors with Ph.D.'s and thirteen with M.A.'s.
5.Administration
The feasibility report of 1974 stated that
a society rediscovering itself has an urgent need for universities. The
role of universities in any society involves the passing on of the
culture. In Palestinian society the universities had also become symbols
of resistance. They were the only nationalist institutions, and as such
were expected by the local community to perform a vanguard role in the
struggle against what they considered an oppressive occupation. Every
Arab near and far was expected to support the Palestinian universities,
it was considered a national obligation. (Anabtawi 1986:9) In many ways
the attitude within the university and the attitudes toward the
university are similar to those reflected in all societies.
The Administration's commitment was to the
academic process that it understood as being separate from the politics
of the national struggle. For the students it was impossible to separate
their educational goals from their battle for related freedoms: the
freedom of expression, freedom of movement and freedom from occupation.
It was futile for the administration to endeavor to remain outside of
the political struggle.
Jacqueline Sfeir remembers participating
in an organized peaceful demonstration on campus in November of 1974
which was broken up by the Israeli Military. One student was shot,
others were beaten and several were arrested. (BUA:85) The
administration naturally was drawn into this and they protested the
unnecessary intrusion by the military to the governor and tried to calm
the situation with the students. The dynamics of being torn between the
students and the military was one of the most difficult realities with
which the administration had to deal.
Brother Brendan recalls an incident where
a student had missed classes and came to offer his explanation.
I
know you will not believe me but I was in prison, that is why I
missed class (he then pulled up his pant leg to reveal an extremely
injured leg) they beat me, but I'm staying. I knew that when I
decided to come here that I would have to give up some of my
Arabness because you only can run this university as Americans,
because that is what you are. But you have to know that I'm an Arab
and as an Arab I think with my heart and later on I think with my
head, and you go the other way around and that is where we are going
to clash sometimes.
(Fitzgerald, interview)
Thinking with his heart referred to
participation in student political activities. The students’ commitment
to "being here to stay" was equal to his commitment to participate in
the national struggle. For the university students the national struggle
involved participating in demonstrations against the occupation, the
distribution of political literature and sponsoring Palestinian cultural
events. These activities inevitably brought them into conflict with the
Israeli Defense Forces and resulted in arrests. The classes that were
subsequently missed were considered acceptable sacrifice and it was
expected that the administration would understand.
The arrest of students and faculty became
common and the administration was unwillingly forced into the political
conflict. One example of this is the case of Dr. Anton Sansour, the Dean
of the University. Dr. Sansour was arrested June 23,1975, following an
end of the year celebration sponsored by the University. When Brother
Brendan arrived at the Israeli police station at the Russian Compound in
Jerusalem and requested permission to visit with Dr. Sansour, he was
refused entry. Brother Brendan told the police that he believed the
reason they would not allow him to visit Sansour was that the professor
had been injured by them and they did not want this to be discovered.
His request to visit was still refused. (Fitzgerald, interview)
The Brothers from the University went
every day to the prison to try to get information and to demand visiting
rights. The demand for visitation was consistently denied. The Brothers
kept in close contact with Dr. Sansour’s wife and shared with her the
status of their efforts and tried to comfort her during this difficult
time. Brother Joe Lowenstien went daily to visit foreign dignitaries and
consuls to inform them of the situation and to enlist their services on
behalf of Dr. Sansour. He believes that visiting the dignitaries as well
as the daily visits to the police station protected Dr. Sansour from the
torture that was commonly a part of such arrests. ( B’TSELEM 1991:105
1998:36) Dr. Sansour was detained for a week. During his detainment he
was kept in a poorly lighted cell and interrogated daily. He was
released without charges or explanation on June 30. (Brother Joe
Lowenstien, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 6 October
1998 BUA:87)
Following the release of Dr. Sansour,
Brother Joe received a call from the Military Governor to inform him
that nothing he, or the others, had done resulted in Dr. Sansour's
release. An explanation for the arrest was never given by the Israeli
authorities. This was a turning point in the relationship between the
students and the administration, when the students saw what the
administration had done to help this man they began to believe that they
were here for them.
The first time the university was closed
by the Israeli Military was in response to a student strike on campus. (Lowenstien,
interview) According to Brother Joe the Israeli Military escalated the
conflict with the students by interfering with events that took place on
campus. For example, students would often leave class for an hour to
gather in the courtyard in memory of an event or the death of a
Palestinian they believed to be a martyr. The students would sit around,
call out names, sing and pray. Brother Joe felt that if this event were
left to run its course the students would have returned to class and
that would have been the end of the affair. Instead the Israeli Military
would appear on the roofs and walls surrounding the university,
preventing anyone from entering campus. The students in the courtyard
would react by throwing stones and all of what was set in motion could
have been avoided if the military had respected that the University was
a closed campus. (Ibid.)
Other areas of hardship existed in the
roadblocks which interfered with and often prevented the arrival of
faculty, staff and students on campus. The military attacks on campus
made it necessary for faculty to be educated in the use of onions and
toothpaste to diminish the effect of tear gas.
The administration was "walking a tight
rope" with the constant threat of losing balance. They were attempting
to meet the needs of the local population which were in the midst of a
national crisis and remain neutral enough to function successfully. In
the process these educators were themselves involved in an experiential
learning process in the matter of the Israeli occupation and the
Palestinian national struggle.
F. Development and Military Orders
1978-1987
1. Library
Israeli censorship and taxes (B’TSELEM
1990:12) inhibited development of the library, yet Bethlehem University
continued to move forward toward its goal of providing quality
education, research and service for its students and the local
community. A new Library building was dedicated in April 1978. The
building also housed the Pontifical Mission Public Library which was the
first public library in Bethlehem. The university library instituted a
student work-study program which increased their staff. In 1982, bindery
services were initiated and there was the addition of a microfilm
collection. By 1983 the staff had completed the transition from the
Dewey Decimal System to that of the Library of Congress.
Military Orders requiring censorship of
printed material had a direct effect on the development of the library.
Military Order 50 of July 11, 1967, was an Order concerning the bringing
in and distribution of newspapers which actually extended to include all
publications. Military Order 101, August 27, 1967, was an order
concerning the Prohibition of Incitement and Adverse Propaganda. In this
order printing was defined to include carving upon stone. Article 88 of
the Defense (Emergency) Regulations of 1945 gave the censor the
authority to prohibit the importation and exportation of publications
which in his opinion could become prejudicial for defense. (Shehadeh
1985:157)
Following its investigation of the state
of the universities on the West Bank, a Hebrew University faculty
committee made public a Report on the Condition of Universities.
In this report it was estimated that the military had censored 3,000
books. The committee continued to state that there were cases when the
disapproved books had disappeared and the senders had been unable to
retrieve the purchase price or the Value Added Tax (VAT). From 1980 no
Arabic books or periodicals were allowed to enter the West Bank and
universities had to depend upon Western literature. (Aruri 1984:334)
Elsa Hazboun, from the second graduating
class of Bethlehem University, recalls the difficulty involved in
purchasing books in Arabic for the library prior to 1980. Contact was
first made with an agent who would attend the Cairo Book Fair, as would
the university librarians. The books chosen by the librarians were then
handled by this agent through a dealer in Gaza. Through these services
the taxes were paid and the books were shipped to the university. It
would take another month after the fair for the books to arrive in
Bethlehem. This was a very expensive and lengthy process. (Elsa Hazboun,
interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 3 July 1998)
Mary Morcos, Librarian for the Special
Collections on Palestine, shared in an interview that one of the most
difficult circumstances for her occurred at the Cairo Book Fair. There
she saw a display table of Arabic books on Palestine but they were
unable to purchase them because in the Occupied Territories any material
on Palestine or Palestinians was considered seditious and therefore
illegal. (Mary Morcos, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem
3 July 1998)
High taxes were another issue that
hindered the acquisitions for the library. Mary Morcos explained that
when taxes were not immediately paid the Israeli authorities would add
storage charges to the bill. The tax issue was especially baffling to
Mary since she believed that universities inside Israel received a tax
exemption on books and equipment. Despite the difficulties of these
restrictions, by 1986, the library had a collection of 25,000 books
(two-thirds of these were in English), subscription to 336 periodicals,
an audio- visual center and a language laboratory.
2. Council of Higher Education
The Council for Higher Education was
formed in 1978 for the expressed purpose of coordinating the work among
the universities and institutions of higher learning in the West Bank
and Gaza. The members of the Council included administrators from the
various universities. Bethlehem University was also represented on this
council. With the issuance of Military Order 854 in July of 1980 the
authority of the Council for Higher Education was usurped by the Israeli
authorities who assumed authority over work permits, teaching licenses,
academic curricula and accreditation. The far reaching effects of this
order on the day to day running of the university are demonstrated in
the granting of work permits for faculty and the restrictions placed on
students. These effects can be seen in the following examples involving
working permits; student movement from district to district and the
development of curriculum.
3. Military Order 854
Professor Colonel Menachem Milson, Head of
the Civil Administration of the West Bank, initiated Military Order 854
which became known as the "loyalty oath". George Schultz, then United
States Secretary of State, referred to the policy of anti-PLO pledge as
a loyalty oath which he viewed as reminiscent of the McCarthy era
in the United States. MO 854 brought universities and colleges within
the limits of the Jordanian Law on Education and Culture No. 16 of 1964
which regulated elementary schools. (Nassar, Heacock 1990:321)
Simultaneously, the Israeli authorities
promulgated new regulations that gave them complete control over who
could be a student, teacher, or principal. The Israeli authorities were
given the power to consider public order considerations when
issuing teachers certificates. West Bank universities thereafter
received their licenses at the discretion of the military education
officer and the Chief of Police. The license issued was temporary and
the criteria for accreditation was not specified. The language of MO 854
made it clear that it was not only an academic criteria.
(Kuttab,1987:1,4)
In conjunction with MO 854 three
unnumbered Orders were issued. Two of these prohibited teachers,
principals and students from entering the West Bank without a written
personal permit issued by a military commander. (Ibid.,3)
Article Eight of the Jordanian Regulation
Regarding Teacher Certification was amended to allow the relevant
authority to cancel teaching certificates for anyone convicted of a
security offense or anyone who had been held in administrative
detention. (Ibid.,4)
Faculty members applying for a work-permit
were required to sign an anti-PLO pledge. Upon refusal, a work permit
was denied. If the applicant held a Jordanian passport, even if they
were a resident of the West Bank, they were ordered to be deported. This
affected one-fifth of the academic community. (Aruri 1984:320)
At Bethlehem University almost half of the
staff were considered 'foreign'. A laboratory instructor was deported,
as was a teacher who was a citizen of the United Kingdom. Ten staff
members were prohibited from teaching. (Graham-Brown 1984:93) Bethlehem
University experienced a severe academic crisis in the Fall Semester of
1982 and was only able to complete the semester due to the devoted
cooperation of the entire staff which worked together to cover the
academic load.
Nursing students who were required to do
practical training at the Hussein Hospital in Beit Jala, a neighboring
village within walking distance of the university, under MO 854 were
required to have a entry-permit to travel from one district to another.
The nursing students were stopped and refused entry at military
checkpoints in October 1980 because they did not have entry-permits.
So extensive was the authority given to
the Israeli authorities under MO 854 that Bethlehem University was
denied a request for a new program designed to train tourist guides
which was to have come under the hotel management department.
4. Housing and Science Building
Development continued and the Mar Andrea
Hostel was opened in 1979 to provide off-campus housing for female
students. The upper floor of the Mar Andrea building was used as a
convent for the Sisters working with the University. The Science
Building was opened in 1980 with all scientific equipment subject to
censorship and taxation. The Sisters' Residence was completed and opened
in 1984 and in 1985 the residence for the Brothers was completed. The
completion of the residence for the Brothers represented their
commitment to stay. (Johnston, 1998:6)
Although there were funds available for
the Multi-Purpose Building, one of the three recommendations made by the
Canadian Committee, the Israeli authority denied the university the
necessary building permit. Brother Cyril described the continued
development of the university in the face of constant adversity as a
miracle of providence.
5. Accreditation in the Arab Countries
As an Arab university in the Middle East
it was critical that Bethlehem University be recognized by the Arab
countries. The administration pursued this objective by trial and error
until they learned the procedure they must follow to go through the
Association of Arab Universities. This understanding came after many
visits to Jordan. The first occurred prior to the opening of the
University, when they met with officials and administrators from the
University of Jordan. In 1981 their efforts were rewarded and Bethlehem
University was recognized by the Association of Arab Universities.
Brother Joe Lowenstien stated that they had been:
. .
. unaware of the implication of this accreditation. The real
implication of Bethlehem University, a Christian university, being
accepted by the Arab world was that it recognized Christians as a
people, rightly so, and the Christians took this as a fact that the
Christians were accepted in the Arab world, because Christians were
always seen as the step-child in the Arab world.
6. Death of the First Student
On June 23, 1980 an Israeli soldier was on
patrol in a jeep with a mounted machine gun. It was a quiet morning and
the streets were almost empty except for some of the Bethlehem
University students who were walking up Star Street to attend classes.
The military jeep followed them and as they did the young soldier teased
the students by pretending he was going to shoot and unaware that the
safety was off, shot and killed Taghreed Al Butmeh. The Israeli Military
prevented Bethlehem University staff and students from attending the
funeral. The Al Butmeh family requested that the students not stage a
demonstration in response to the tragedy. At the following graduation,
Bethlehem University conferred upon Miss Taghreed Al Butmeh the first
Honorary Degree to be awarded posthumously. The degree was received by
her father. (Lowenstien, interview BUA:85)
7. Pre-School Teacher Program
From its inception Bethlehem University
placed a strong emphasis on teacher training. Seventy percent of the
schools of the West Bank and Gaza were government schools and they had
been neglected since the occupation. There was a desperate need in the
country for qualified teachers. The Israeli authorities did not allow
Teachers College to develop. (Fasheh, interview) In response to this
need Bethlehem University’s full-time students who earned a Bachelor
Degree automatically earned a Diploma of Education in Arts and
Mathematics.
In 1985, the Faculty of Education was
created and Jacqueline Sfeir returned to Bethlehem University as a
faculty member of the Preschool Teacher program. Upon graduation from
the University (1977) Jacqueline had accepted a position as a science
teacher at St. Joseph's High School in Bethlehem. As a science student
at Bethlehem University Jacqueline had learned experientially and tried
to incorporate this same method with the classes she taught.
The students at St. Joseph's High School
did not respond and Jacqueline, convinced she had failed as a teacher,
returned to Bethlehem University to study in the Classroom Teacher
program. Having explained the difficulties she was having to Dr. Violet
Fasheh, then Dean of the Faculty of Education, and to Dr. Jared Dorn, a
visiting professor, Jacqueline was offered a scholarship by the
University to specialize in Early Childhood Education in the United
States. Subsequently she earned her M.A and Ph.D. from the University of
Northern Colorado. Jacqueline Sfeir returned to Bethlehem as the first
teacher in the West Bank to be educated in Early Childhood Training. Dr.
Jacqueline Sfeir faced the challenge of implementing revolutionary
change in the pre-school Teacher program. (Sfeir, interview)
Dr. Sfeir, as a teacher at St. Joseph’s,
identified one primary learning problem with the Palestinian education
system. The educational system employed was a "learn by rote" system.
Children were unable to think through a problem and come to conclusions
based on creative or analytic processes. Dr. Sfeir was determined to
observe the situation first hand before implementing a solution, her
desire was for an intimacy with the Palestinian classrooms not simply
text book answers. Bethlehem University was supportive and gave her the
time she felt was necessary to evaluate the existing program.
Dr. Sfeir further observed that the
graduates of the Pre-school program were doing little more than
providing safe child care for working mothers. Because of this she spent
time working with the pre-school teachers and various women's
organizations. When the time came to implement changes these changes
were perceived as internal and not external. One implementation she
introduced was training for the teachers in early childhood development.
(Ibid.)
G. Politics Power and Education
1. Israeli Position
Just as there has always been a contingent
of Palestinians who have protested the establishment of a Jewish state a
similar attitude is perceived to exist towards Palestine. David Ben
Gurion recorded in his diary, "we [Jews] must do everything to ensure
they never return". In 1969 Prime Minister Golda Meir made the now well
known statement that there is "no such thing as a Palestinian" ( London
Times 15 July 1969).
Under the direction of Army Major General
Danny Matt, Coordinator of Activities in the Occupied Territories, it
was determined that any display by the Palestinians of national
sentiment was seditious (Washington Post 19 November 1980) The
universities were considered to be hotbeds for terrorism and were under
constant scrutiny. Brother Fitzgerald remembers that there was an
Israeli patrol around the campus at least three times a day and within
minutes of a student gathering the surrounding roof tops and wall were
mounted with soldiers.
2. Student Senate
National politics became the leading
activity of the student movement on the universities. Student newspapers
introduced the youth into the language and practice of politics. The
elected councils of the universities provided a forum for public
politics in a situation where there had been no municipal elections
since 1976.
The Student Senate at Bethlehem University
had its beginnings in 1974-75 school year. The selection and
representation of the members of the Senate and the proceedings for the
elections were defined in their Constitution. There were five clubs: the
Heritage, Sports, Culture, Social and Art, whose elected leaders served
on the Senate. The offices of President, Vice President, Secretary, and
Treasurer were voted on ten days after the club leaders were elected to
office, making a total of a nine member Senate Council.
Students in the occupied territories had
little control over the political environment in which they lived.
Political discussions were not tolerated by the occupiers and the only
avenue for participation in a political process and for freedom of
expression was on the university campus and through participation in the
student senate.
The Student Senate came under the
Presidency of Hasan Abu AlJawad in 1978. Hasan had studied in Lebanon
for three years but was unable to return for his final year of
university after coming to the West Bank to visit his parents. He then
moved to Jordan where he worked as a journalist for one year before
returning to the West Bank. Within two months of his return he was
picked up off the street and arrested, no reason for the arrest was
given. (Hasan Abu AlJawad, interviewed by author, Bethlehem 26 August
1998)
While in prison he participated in various
study groups taking a variety of subjects including philosophy, economy
and art. Upon his release he determined to work towards his Bachelor
Degree at Bethlehem University. Hasan was from the Daijeh Refugee Camp
in Bethlehem.
During his first year on campus Hasan
became very involved in student activities and the following year was
elected President of the Student Senate. Hasan's goal for the Senate was
to strengthen and increase their activities. He also wanted to develop a
closer relationship between the students and the greater community in
the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This was to be accomplished through:
(1) joint conferences, (2) lectures on the university campus which would
be open to all, and (3) cooperative activities such as an International
Book Fair. The lectures on the university campus were political in
nature and included among the guest lecturers many Israelis. In addition
to these activities the Senate was also involved in fund raising. These
fund raising activities would at times overlap with the political
activities. (Ibid.)
Under Hasan's presidency the Student
Senate organized a conference inviting municipal leaders, institutions,
social groups and other universities. There were over 5000 in
attendance. The purpose of this conference was to protest the Camp David
Accords.
Hasan organized a student strike at
Bethlehem University in protest against the Administration. The issue
concerned the Student Advisory Committee which interacted with the
Administration. The Senate demanded that the Student Advisory Committee
be changed to an Executive Committee that would have the power to
implement changes. The strike continued for thirty-five days and
involved students sleeping at the university. (Ibid.)
On the morning of the thirty-fifth day,
Hasan, who was sleeping at the university, recalls that he was visited
by his father and informed that the Israeli military had been to their
home and the home of his aunt searching for him. The military had beaten
his father and family members at his aunt's house and had destroyed
property.
Hasan reported to the Military Governor
where he was blindfolded, had his hands and feet bound, and was taken to
a prison in Jerusalem where he was beaten and tortured. The Israelis’
concern seems to have been the student strike and the fear that they
were going to hold another conference like the one which protested the
Camp David Accords. The student strike ended the day after Hasan was
arrested but Hasan was not released until two and a half months later.
(Ibid.)
3. Administration
Brother Joe Lowenstien believes that the
student strike was over power and Brother Brendan Fitzgerald agrees with
this. The students, according to the Brothers, wanted to have control
over everything including academics. In regards to the student strike
led by Hasan, Brother Joe recalls that he was given a list of demands
and a deadline for answering them. The dead line was to be within a
couple of days but he had no sooner received the list in his hands than
the students went on strike.(Lowenstien, Fitzgerald, interviews)
It was impossible for him to do anything
then until they went back to class because it would have destroyed any
type of control he had. The control that the administrative team had was
purely moral, they had no physical power. Their power was derived out of
professionalism and interest in education. (Lowenstien, interview)
While some of the student demands could
have been met such as more drinking fountains. Other demands such as the
control of the gate, which would enable them to let anyone in when they
wanted, and control over the academics, which would enable them to miss
class to participate in politics, were not negotiable. The Student
Senate was clearly interested in politics and wanted the power to carry
out their political activities without interference from the
administration. (Ibid.)
Hassan was a dynamic orator and it was not
uncommon for his oration to arouse the student body. They would come out
of the meeting with the intention of sitting in the administrative
offices. The administration would get wind of it and lock the doors. The
students would sit in the corridors and when the administration came out
of their offices they would have to step over them. It was a difficult
time and in the end it was necessary to call in outside help. (Ibid.)
The Brothers turned to the Council of
Higher Education and in response Dr. Gabi Baramki from Birzeit
University stepped in as mediator. Because of the days lost it was
necessary to drop one of the courses for that semester in order to use
the days to make up the class hours for the other courses. (Ibid.)
The night before the strike, at 10 P.M.,
Brother Brendan was called down to the Military Governors office where
he was kept waiting in the reception area for a long period of time.
Finally Brother Brendan sent the message to the governor that they had
class the following day and were preparing to leave. They were then
called in within fifteen minutes. The purpose of the summons was to
issue a warning that the students were planning to strike the next day.
Brother Brendan was informed that if the demonstration went outside the
walls the administration would be held responsible. He replied that they
were not responsible for anything that went on outside the university
walls. (Fitzgerald, interview)
The Israeli Governor wanted it understood
by the administration at Bethlehem University that he was in control.
This power was demonstrated in the manner in which he dealt with the
Brothers. They were never summoned to the governors’ office during the
day, it was always at ten o'clock in the night. They were always "talked
down to" and were never treated as an equal or as a professional. (Lowenstien,
interview)
4. Anti-Israeli Demonstrations
Following Hasan Abed AlJawad's term as
President of the Student Senate, the students became more active in
their opposition to the occupation. Anti-Israeli demonstration increased
on campus and developed into a pattern. Speeches expressing national
sentiments and discontent with the oppressors were given in an assembly
at around 9 a.m. When the meeting began those students who did not wish
to be involved, left the campus for fear of being locked in once the
demonstrations began. Following the meeting students would gather in the
main courtyard to sing patriotic songs. At this time members of the
Student Senate would close the main entrance gate. Within a short time
soldiers would appear in the streets outside. As soon as the soldiers
approached through Friars Street, some of the male students would raise
the Palestinian flag on the pole above the entrance gate. Others were in
place to throw stones in response to the firing by the army of live
ammunition and tear gas canisters into the campus compound and directly
into the buildings. Once the tear gas canisters were fired the students
would scatter in search of shelter except for those who had prepared wet
sacks which they would throw over the falling canisters to neutralize
them. (Sister Mary Brennan, interviewed by author, Bethlehem 3 July
1998)
Mary Morcos, librarian, shared that the
first time she saw a student demonstration and the soldiers reaction to
it she was frightened. She has vivid memories of the soldiers opening
fire on the students and of the students throwing stones. Stone throwing
became a regular occurrence as did the soldiers surrounding the campus
at 5:30 in the morning and blocking the entrance.
5. University Closings
November 2, 1981 marked the beginning of
an eighteen-day ordeal involving student demonstrations, disturbances
and strikes which resulted in the loss of half a month's teaching days.
The challenge to the administration and faculty was reorganizing
schedules to make up classes. It was necessary to infringe upon the
second semester which then caused a late start for the summer school
program.
During the Spring Semester of 1982 five
armed men invaded the campus and two of them attacked the guard at the
main gate. Brother Albert, Dean of Students, intervened to protect the
guard and was beaten by two of the men. The unidentified attackers fled
the scene and the guard was rushed to the hospital. It was believed that
this attack was related to the gate-guards strict adherence to the
University's policy for entrance onto the campus. (Lowenstien,
interview)
On that same day, April 7, 1982, the
Vice-Chancellor of the university (Lowenstien) received a threatening
note signed by the leaders of the "Village Leagues", in which the
university was accused of being opposed to the Leagues and was warned of
serious consequences. (BUA Draft:91) The Palestinians remained
suspicious of the Brothers and were still not convinced that they were
committed to the local population. The basis of this suspicion was due
to the administration's high commitment to education and their goal of
remaining neutral in the politics of the region. (Ibid.)
Classes were again disrupted following
Israel's invasion of Lebanon on June 6, 1982. Many of the students had
relatives among the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. On June 8 the
student body conducted a quiet two-hour strike to demonstrate their
concern and anxiety over the news reports. On June 9, an armed Israeli
jeep was parked outside the university's main entrance gate and the
soldiers persisted in vocal harassment of the students who were arriving
as well as those in the courtyard. A student threw a rock over the wall.
The soldiers fired their guns into the air and canisters of tear gas
were fired onto the campus. The efforts of the staff and the students to
avoid further confrontations were to no avail. Student exams were
scheduled to begin on June 21 but on June 14 the Vice-Chancellor was
informed that the university was to be closed indefinitely. In a meeting
of the administrators with the Civilian Governor they were informed that
"The university is open, but the campus is closed".
The following week the university was
given permission to give some exams outside the university. Finally, on
June 30 permission to reopen the university, give exams, and register
the new freshmen class was given. It was at this meeting that the
university was informed that beginning in September students crossing
from one jurisdiction to another would need a pass. Final exams were
begun on the university campus July 5 and ran through July 14. The
semester ended six weeks after the originally scheduled date. There was
no summer school conducted in 1982.
In the Fall Semester of 1983, the
university was closed by the Israeli military for two months. The
closure stemmed from an incident of October 21 when eleven armed
soldiers and two policemen arrived on the campus to examine a
Palestinian Exhibit set up by the students. The soldiers confiscated the
exhibit: cultural items, posters, books, music cassettes and printed
material. The university officials were summoned to a meeting with the
Governor of the West Bank and it was assumed that the matter was closed.
The university functioned normally for the rest of the week. On November
1, following the arrest of eighteen students, the entire campus was
surrounded and the university was closed for two months.
In 1983 the university was closed for four
weeks during March and April and again for two months from November to
January 1984. The strategy of closing the university continued and
classes were also interrupted by student activities. In the Spring
Semester of 1987 the interruptions of the academic work continued. There
were seventeen days of military closures or roadblocks and eleven days
of disruption due to student meetings and hunger strikes. The Graduation
Ceremony in 1987 was held on July 26.
6. Isaq Abu Srur
At the opening of the Fall Semester in
September 1987 Bethlehem University had a faculty of 145 and a student
body of 1422. The semester was running peacefully until October 28, the
date that commemorated the tragic massacre of Kfar Qasim when
the students held a rally on campus. There
was the singing of national songs and the raising of the Palestinian
flag. By noon soldiers were in place outside the entrance gates and in
the streets. The students began to throw stones.
Mary, a freshman student who was involved
in collecting stones in a basket for the male students, states that the
soldiers opened fire and were shooting into the campus at the students
for "a long time". Mary hid behind the wall next to Isaq Abu Srur. When
there was a break in the gunfire Isaq raised his head to look over the
wall and was hit by a soldier’s bullet. (Mary, interviewed by author, 28
June 1998, Jerusalem, tape recorded) Another student was hit in the hip.
The soldiers also fired canisters of tear gas onto the campus. Fellow
students carried Isaq to the University First Aid Center. From there it
took several hours before the military allowed the dying student to be
transferred to a hospital.
Isaq Abu Srur was a fourth year English
student from the Aidah Refugee Camp in Bethlehem. He died in the
hospital following surgery to remove the bullet which had lodged in his
brain. The Union of Teachers and Employees of Bethlehem University
established a scholarship fund giving an annual grant to a full-time
student that was named the Martyr Isaq Abu Srur Grant.
By October 1987, confrontations between
the army and the students still continued, resulting in both casualties
and fatalities. The closure of universities was no longer an exceptional
measure but had become a standard procedure. Following the soldiers
attack on a student rally which was taking place inside the walls of
Bethlehem University, and the fatal shooting of Isaq Abu Srur, the
military authorities punished the university with a closure of three
months, canceling the Fall Semester.
[Back to top]
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CHAPTER THREE:
THE INTIFADA AND
OFF-CAMPUS EDUCATION
A. Revolt
In December 1987 several Palestinian
workers were killed in an accident involving an Israeli truck driver.
Rumor spread quickly that this event was an act of revenge for the
recent murder of an Israeli in an Arab market. The festering hostilities
that Palestinians had been harboring against Israel erupted into a
revolt beginning in Gaza and spreading to the West Bank.
This uprising became known as the
Intifada (shaking off). It was fueled by frustrated youth who faced
a dark and hopeless future. Professional employment opportunities were
limited for the youth and often the only employment that could be found
was manual day labor in Israel. The bitterness that they felt exploded
and the youth flooded the streets empowered with the rage of injustice
and launched their only weapons, stones and debris, at the Israeli
Defense Soldiers.
Burning tires, rocks and debris served as
roadblocks, for the shabab (youth), which forced Israeli jeeps to halt.
Once stopped the Israeli jeeps were sitting targets for the youth and
the soldiers were pelted with a barrage of stones that were hurled in
the fervor of fanaticism.
Curfews imposed on the population did
little to curve the infectious passion of protest. Tear gas and smoke
from burning tires permeated the air and the intensity of the revolt
increased with each incident.
The entire Palestinian population
experienced the tentacular effect of the Intifada. University
students who were torn between their desire for education and their
interest in the national struggle became a integral part of the
conflict. The students’ participation in the struggle resulted in the
Israeli authorities closing the universities.
1. Rationale for Closing the Universities
Universities were held responsible by the
Israeli authorities for inciting unrest. Their long held belief that
Palestinian universities were hotbeds for anti-Israeli propaganda and
protest led, in their opinion, to the necessity of closing the
universities. Bethlehem University had already been closed on October
28th 1987 (following the incident in which Isaq was shot). That closure
was due to end on January 3rd 1988 but Bethlehem University was closed
along with all the other universities on the West Bank as collective
punishment for the revolt of the general public.
In spite of the closing of the
universities the Intifada continued for three years. During this
entire period all the universities were closed. Mukhlis Hammouri,
Director of Public Relations at Hebron University, commented;
The
closure is not just a collective punishment. . . In my opinion, the
Israelis regret the fact that the universities were ever established. .
. what they are trying to accomplish is a slow annihilation of the
institutions. (JMCC 1990:21)
Demonstrations and protests did take place
on Bethlehem University campus. University students throughout the world
tend to become involved in controversial issues. The students at
Bethlehem University were no exception to this phenomenon. The Student
Senate was very active in their protest against the occupation. There is
nothing unusual about this in itself student political movements are a
worldwide phenomenon. In third world countries, where students are among
the small number of articulate and literate people in their society,
they tend to be nationalists who oppose the established order. Indeed it
would have been exceptional if the students on the universities of the
West Bank did not rise in protest to the Israeli occupation.
International Law dictates policy toward a
nation under military occupation by foreign military forces. Under
Article 56 of the Hague Regulations it is illegal to raid schools, to
use them as military posts or to close them for a prolonged period of
time. The closing of the schools on the West Bank violated the Geneva
Convention and the Hague Regulations. The Israeli military consistently
chose to ignore these laws and it was this behavior that gave the
faculty and staff of Bethlehem University the free conscience to defy
the authorities and continue to provide the opportunity for higher
education to their students.
2. Policy of the Administration
In a report prepared by Brother Anton de
Roeper the policy of the Bethlehem University was outlined.
The university is closely associated with the local
community. The events of the past year, in the West Bank and Gaza, are
part also of our university history. We presume to think that the
constant presence of the Community of Brothers on the campus, the
regular attendance of religious members of Secular Institutes in
services and the daily presence of the Administration have been an
ongoing sign of life in the university. They have been a sign also of
the commitment of Bethlehem University to the service of the community.
And our future is part of the future of that community.
Each of the De La Salle Brothers at
Bethlehem University individually made the decision to remain with the
people they had come to serve and to do all they could to support the
students and the community.
Administration, faculty and staff of
Bethlehem University united in an effort to keep the academic process in
motion. During the early months of the closure some discrete teaching
took place on campus. Teachers organized tutorial sessions with
individual seniors enabling those with only a few courses left to
complete the requirements for graduation.
3. Flexibility
In January of 1988 Brother Joe Lowenstien
did not feel that enough was being done to keep the students in the
educational process. The possibility of off-campus classes was first
discussed at a Council Meeting and it was there decided that the classes
would need to be no larger than eight students and one teacher. The
determination of class size was based on military order 101, which made
it illegal for a group of ten or more to gather.(Lowenstien, interview)
Brother Joe then went all around Bethlehem
and Jerusalem to find suitable facilities that would serve as
classrooms. Together the faculty and administration worked on a schedule
being careful to coordinate in such a way that two groups of students
would not be in one location at the same time. The students were told
not to walk together but rather to arrive separately. With these plans
made and numerous prayers offered, the off-campus classes were begun in
January of 1988. (Ibid.)
B.
Continuation of the Academic Process
1. Faculty
The faculty and staff of Bethlehem
University were unwavering in their commitment to continue the academic
process. This was not an easy decision for the Palestinian faculty
members who were concerned for the impact their actions might have on
their families. Arrest or administrative detainment were possible
consequences and they had to be weighed against the value of education.
The Brothers, on the other hand, were not in any real danger of military
arrest because they were American citizens. In the end, according to
Brother Cyril, it was the faculty's concern and commitment to the
students that helped overrule their fear for personal safety.
2. Getting Started
The Faculty restructured courses and
classes were scattered. There was still a need for access to the campus
but this was limited to what was deemed to be a safe minimum. Brother
Joe arranged for centers at various locations where students and
teachers could meet safely to conduct class. In Gaza the university
received the support of the Pontifical Mission. Through the cooperation
of the parish priest the teachers and students were able to meet. Exams
for the Gaza students were arranged at the parish school. (Ibid.)
Students were restricted to two courses per semester except those who
were near graduation they were able to take three.
The staff and the students were aware that
the university could do nothing to protect themselves from the Israeli
authorities. They understood the possible consequences for their actions
yet commenced upon this venture voluntarily. The off-campus learning
centers enabled the administration to continue education in a different
way and it enabled the students to continue with the struggle in that
they were not giving up.
The off-campus program was limited in that
it lacked proper facilities for practical laboratory based worked for
the applied sciences, computers and a communication system. During the
years of the closure this situation improved as they once again,
looked at what they had and how they could make it work. (Sfeir,
interview)
3. Library
The staff members of the library were key
players in enabling the education process to continue. Elsa Hazboun,
then Library Director, shared that initially she and the staff had
thought they could use the time available, due to the absence of
students on campus, to catch up on the back load of work but the tension
was too great for this hope to be realized. Daily there were reports of
arrests and deaths of students and the staff quite naturally were
affected by these reports. Roadblocks often prevented staff from
arriving at the university and frequently it was necessary to leave
early due to the situation. The university administration was always
concerned that the safety of the staff not be placed in jeopardy. It was
not uncommon to send them home early at the slightest indication of
trouble. These obstacles caused a great uncertainty of the working hours
and this was a further distraction. (Hazboun, interview)
Elsa remembers taking books home to write
reference numbers on the bindings in an effort to catch up and to keep
the library running. Often it was too cold to work in the library
because there was no heat in the building. It was not considered cost
effective to heat the entire building for the few staff present. Yet the
library staff pressed on doing what was possible and accepting the
limitations imposed on them.
The librarians also organized the books
the students would need for their off campus learning centers. When
necessary the readings and texts were photocopied. The teachers were
allowed to enter the campus so they would pick up the books and copies
to deliver them to the students. (Ibid.)
Bethlehem University continued to operate
although there were no classes on campus. The Brothers residence was on
campus and this made it possible to conduct a limited amount of business
such as secretarial work, the coordinating of renting off campus
facilities and making up the payroll for staff. Even with the university
office running there were difficulties in processing data for students
studying in this bizarre situation. The determination of all involved
strengthened them to press on and find a way around or over the
never-ending obstacles placed in the path of progress.
4. Finances
Two factors contributed to financial
hardships during the Intifada at the university. First, the
closure restricted financial aid from outside the country from arriving.
Second, there was the loss of income from student fees. Non-government
organizations that address Palestinian issues estimate that the total
losses for Palestinian institutions of higher education were at about
50-60 million dollars. The expenses of maintaining the laboratory
equipment and caring for the research specimens as well as general
upkeep of the facilities were paid despite the loss of income. Financial
difficulties were directly related to the closure of the universities.
C.
Off-Campus Programs
Hanna Katanacho was a third year student
when the university was closed. At the time the off-campus program
started Hanna enrolled. This was not an easy process as it involved many
phone calls and contacting many different people since the information
was spread by word of mouth. Hanna was able to take two classes per
semester. The classes met in homes or in Catholic convents.
Hanna has vivid memories of a chemistry
class he was attending that was raided by the Israeli military. He and
the other students were herded into a jeep and taken to a detainment
center. Hanna was released at the end of the day because he had a
Jerusalem identification card, he does not know what happened to the
others.
Hanna Katanacho was part of the graduating
class of 1991 it took him seven years to complete his Bachelor’s degree.
He then went on to the United States and earned two graduate degrees
before returning to East Jerusalem and to teach at Bethlehem Bible
College. (Hanna Katanacho, interviewed by author, tape recording,
Bethlehem, 24 February 1999.)
1. Biology
Sister Mary Agatha Diaz was a biology
teacher during the years of the closure who was living in the Mar Andrea
building. She remembers that it was necessary for her to remain in the
house to be available for the students. Sister Mary shared her memories
of teaching biology and said that they congregated outdoors, under
trees, as well as in private homes, and in the basement of the Antonian
Church. (Sister Mary Diaz, interviewed by author, Bethlehem 3 July 1998)
Sister Diaz related that she would receive
a list from the administration of students who were registered for her
class. The class size would be limited to fifteen in one class at one
time. Sister Diaz would have only the most basic materials from the
university such as microscopes, test tubes, and simple glass wares.
When asked about the students grades and
participation in class Sister Diaz said that the grades were "as usual"
and that the students maintained a serious attitude toward their
studies. She emphasized that these students suffered harassment at the
checkpoints by the soldiers in coming to class and risked imprisonment
to further their education.
Other problems encountered were that
attendance was affected by students who were imprisoned and it was
constantly necessary to reschedule and organize make-up classes. At
times the students concentration was poor due to actions taken by the
military or the eruption of nearby gunfire. Despite this, the students
were committed to study and Sister Diaz was willing and eager to teach,
so the classes continued. (Ibid.)
Sister Diaz's experience in teaching
during the closure is somewhat different than other instructors involved
in the distance learning program. Patrick White records in his book
Children of Bethlehem that his classes were composed of five to
six students. They met in homes, in hotels or private schools throughout
Bethlehem and in East Jerusalem. He would meet with his students a
minimum of six times in six weeks for a two or three unit course.
Patrick also states that the student participation was very high.
Patrick White and his students were
cautious when arriving to the classroom location. They always entered
one at a time to prevent drawing attention to the congregation. The
students were often subjected to body searches so they could not carry
their notes or books on their person. Many of Patrick’s students walked
long distances so they could continue with their education. For this
reason classes had to be rearranged so that the students living in
villages could spend the night with friends who lived closer to the
classrooms. (White 1990:108-110)
2. Geology
Brother David Scarpa, an instructor of
Earth Sciences, taught for a spring and fall semester in off campus
facilities. Brother David said it was challenging to carry around the
microscopes and equipment needed for the class in the back of a car.
Brother David and his students used these adverse circumstances to their
advantage by completing a thorough field mapping, sectioning and
sampling of Wadi Ahmad. Brother David explained that at that time the
area was completely deserted and, by being discrete, he and his students
were able to conduct this study without incident.(Brother David Scarpa,
interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem 30 September 1998)
3. Pre-School Teacher Program
The Early Childhood movement, which Dr.
Jacqueline Sfeir pioneered, had been based in Women's Committees that
were deeply involved with the community. When the Intifada
erupted the women were already networked and had established centers
throughout the community. These women had been politically active and
quickly became involved in organizing an alternative society to care for
community needs such as education. They had established a distance
learning program that was in place through the Early Childhood
Learning Centers before the Intifada had ever begun. (Sfeir,
interview)
The Preschool Teacher program took on a
national scope as a result of the Intifada. The disturbance
caused interruptions in their classes and they suffered with the same
restrictions placed on the Palestinian community. The program not only
continued but also expanded throughout the West Bank and Gaza. They met
in small groups in basements, cafes, and various locations. The uprising
did not destroy but rather refined the Preschool Teacher program.
(Ibid.)
4. Nursing
The Nursing Program was able to continue
in East Jerusalem at the Notre Dame Center. The student nurses were able
to complete their theoretical aspects of their courses and practicum
under the supervision of the Dean of Nursing.
5. Hotel Management
Classes were held in various locations,
one of which was the Imperial Hotel in East Jerusalem. The hotel was
owned and operated by the Djanai family and they opened two rooms to be
used for the students. Students were able to complete their practical
hotel placement requirements at the Notre Dame and the Seven Arches
Hotels and seventeen graduates received their degrees. (Djanai,
interview)
D.
Development, Workshops and Research
1. Physiotherapy Program
The need for a physiotherapy program due
to the population’s continued violent contact with the occupying forces
led to a proposal that was presented at the Academic Council Meeting on
October 28, 1987. As fate would have it, this council meeting was
interrupted by the student demonstration which led to the initial
closure of the university.
In January 1989 the Physiotherapy Program
was begun with twenty-one full time students. These first year students
came from and were sponsored by health organizations in the West Bank
and Gaza. The effort was a cooperative venture with the Bethlehem
Association for the Physically Handicapped, and the Notre Dame Center.
In 1990 an up-grade program for people who already had a physiotherapy
diploma and experience in the field was instituted with sixteen
students. The course work for this upgrade program was part-time for
three years. Upon successful completion of this course the students were
awarded a Bachelors Degree in physiotherapy. The Up-Grade Program was
instituted in cooperation with the University College, Dublin.
2. Training and Workshops
Science Teaching Workshops were conducted
for in-service teachers in association with the Hebron Technical
Institute. These were two-week sessions that were organized and staffed
by Bethlehem University personnel from the Faculties of Education and
Science. Certificates of merit and attendance were awarded to the
participants.
3. Research
Through the link with the University
College of Dublin and a grant provided by the European Economic
Community, a full time coordinator from Dublin arranged academic visits
for Bethlehem University Faculty to Dublin and of Dublin Faculty to
Bethlehem. Through this association a Socio-Economic Survey was
developed and completed to provide a suitable database for development
planning in Bethlehem area.
4. Special Courses
Three courses were offered for the staff
in the use of word processors through the efforts of the computer
services staff and the faculty of the business administration offered
courses in typewriting. Over half of the staff attended one or more of
these courses.
5. Publications
Publications by the Academic Staff were as
follows: Political Stress in the Palestinian
National Movement 1919-1939, published in
Arabic by Dr. Manuel Hassassian; The First Palestinian
Ecology Conference-Proceedings, the official report of
the conference held at Bethlehem University April 1987; Taxation of
Income in the West Bank A Guide Book for the Taxpayers, (Amideast)
Dr. S.J. Baxendale and Mr. J Koussa, two volumes also in Arabic;
Taxation of Income in East Jerusalem:
A Guide Book for the Taxpayers , (Amideast
1988) Dr. S.J. Baxendale and Mr. J. Koussa, Two volumes in Arabic.
Academic Journals: Jordanian and
Malaysian Science Teachers' Prominent
perceived Professional Needs: A Comparison
authored by Abu Bakar, K.H.J. Rubba, P.A. Tomera, A.N. Zurub, and Abel
Rahman; Journal of Research in Science Teaching; 25 (7) 533-587 (1988).
E. Summary
The closing of Bethlehem University united
the administration and the students of Bethlehem University in the
continuing of the academic process. Prior to the closing of October
1987, the administration viewed the national struggle as separate from
education, in the prolonged closing of the university they came to the
understanding that on the West Bank the two were inseparable.
The administration and faculty committed
themselves to providing the opportunity for the students to continue
with their education through the establishment and coordination of
off-campus learning centers. The students committed themselves to
attending the classes and completing the course work through the
turbulent period of the Intifada. The students viewed their
defiance to university closures as part of their national struggle as
well as a statement of their commitment to education.
Bethlehem University continued to develop
during the years of closure. They opened new programs, sponsored
workshops and its faculty continued producing publications. The closure
handicapped the academic process it did not end it.
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CHAPTER FOUR:
THE REOPENING OF
THE UNIVERSITY
A.
Uncertainty of the Reopening
1. Students
The student population was minimal when
Bethlehem University re-opened in 1990. Many had left the country to
continue their education, some were married, and others had been killed
during the uprising. This was a matter of concern for the administration
and faculty and there was a great effort put into developing the student
body. (Fawdi Bannoure, interviewed by author, tape recording Bethlehem 6
October 1998)
The first year students who entered the
University in 1990 required a higher level of commitment on the part of
the faculty. The quality of education had suffered as a result of the
school closing throughout the West Bank. The standard of education had
become very poor and the freshman class reflected this. The instructors
at the University had to double their efforts to bring up the standard
of the students in order to maintain the quality of the education that
Bethlehem University obtained to. (Adan Musallam, interviewed by author,
tape recording, 6 October 1998)
2. Continued Disruptions to the Academic Process
The hope of the administration, faculty
and students was that with the re-opening of the campus, the university
would have fewer difficulties in keeping a class schedule. This hope was
soon squelched as they entered into the early years of the 1990s.
Roadblocks and unannounced closing became the norm. Some believed that
this was a strategy of the Israelis to destroy higher education on the
West Bank. The difficulties encountered in keeping the academic process
in motion after the universities were re-opened were even greater than
what they had been during the years of the Intifada. These
difficulties were due, in part, to an extreme shift in the sociological
structure caused by the Intifada.
Jacqueline Sfeir and Brother Scarpa both
claim that the off campus learning situation was better than what took
place over the next three years. In the off-campus setting they were
able to schedule classes and establish the length of the semester so
they could be relatively certain of their schedule. When the University
re-opened the only certainty was that nothing could be taken for
granted.
3. Rationale for Re-Opening
Pressure to re-open the universities on
the West Bank had come from the European Parliament. On December 14,
1989 the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on members of
the European Community to suspend certain bilateral cultural accords
with Israel. The Parliament also recommended, on January 18,1990, to the
European Community that it freeze funds allocated to scientific
cooperation with Israel until the universities were re-opened. The
Israeli Defense Minister announced, in March of 1990, the gradual
re-opening of the universities in response to this pressure. The
re-opening of the universities did not reflect a change in Israeli will
but a policy it was forced to implement. (JMMCC, 1990:32)
4. Roadblocks and
Closings
The Israeli authorities continued to close
the university but without giving warning. In the past a warning was
given that allowed some time to prepare for the closure. In the early
1990s the closing would come unexpectedly, not allowing time for
adjustments to be made. At times the closings were only for people from
a certain area, allowing students and faculty from one region to enter
and keeping others out. Dr. Jacqueline Sfeir explained that they could
not penalize the students from the closed region by holding classes
during their forced absences. According to Brother David Scarpa the
closings during these years were not related to specific incidents but
were imposed for any insignificant excuse.
Roadblocks would be set up within a hundred meters of the entrance gates
and faculty and students were not permitted to enter the campus. The
University was technically open but no one could enter. Between the
unannounced closings and the roadblocks it was nearly impossible to plan
for classes with any hope that the plan would materialize. (Sfeir,
interview)
5. Closings Due to Events Outside the West Bank
In December of 1990 the University was
closed for several days following the event of the Israeli military
firing into a crowd at the al-Aqsa mosque killing seventeen and wounding
over two hundred Palestinians. The spring semester of 1991 was scheduled
to begin on January 15, the day the Gulf War started, but did not begin
until April 10th. Following the Gulf War the university also suffered a
great financial loss when Saudi Arabia and Kuwait cut their support.
B. Pressing On
1. Special Collections Palestiniana Division
With much joy and excitement the Special
Collections Palestiniana Division was opened in 1990 in the Library
Building. The opening collection was from an already existing collection
on the Middle East. The core of the collection comprises books in all
fields of knowledge which are related to Palestinian affairs. The
opening of this collection section signaled that the days when it was
illegal to print the word "Palestine" were over. (B.U.L. Update 1998:2)
In 1992 the Library received approval from
the university administration for two scholarships entitled. " The
Bethlehem University Library Scholarships for The Best Student
Assistants."
2. Business Development Center
In 1991 the Business Development Center
was opened in an off-campus location. The purpose of the center is to
help local business develop through research, workshops and seminars and
through practical development projects.
3. Graduation 1991
The graduation ceremony on July 27th of
1991 took place at the newly opened Cultural Center. The 300 students
who had completed their course work through the off-campus classes and
would have graduated in 1988, 1989 and 1990 received their degrees with
the graduating class of 1991. A sense of excitement and triumph
permeated the air as the administration and students shared this moment.
The unspoken but understood sentiment of each student, faculty member
and administrative personnel present was, " We are still here, we are
still performing and we have done a good job!" (Lowenstien, interview)
A strong bond had been formed between the
administration and students. For so many years they had misunderstood
and disagreed with each other but the Intifada and the subsequent
closing of the university accommodated a stronger student-teacher. On
this graduation evening there was a general sense of confidence that
Bethlehem University would survive past and present turmoil.
The mother of Isaq Abu Srur was invited by
the University to receive her son’s degree at the graduation ceremony.
She wore a Palestinian dress and was assisted to the platform by one of
her other sons, as she walked forward the crowd was silent and solemn.
When she received Isaq's degree the "assembly rose in a hush" and
simultaneously broke into a thunderously triumphant applause. (White
1992:134)
C.
Off-Campus Classes Continue
George Fellemon, a student who entered the
Hotel Management program in 1991 and graduated in 1993, remembers that
there was such difficulty in holding regular classes at the university
that it was necessary to rent a room at the Notre Dame in East Jerusalem
where classes met. On Fridays, the hotel management class would meet on
campus with the instructors who were unable to travel to Jerusalem.
Although George was only on campus one day
a week he clearly remembers the Israeli soldiers controlling the
students with tear gas on several occasions. He shared how he and the
other students would run to the university kitchen to get onions and wet
cloths to enable them to breathe. (George Fellemon, telephone
conversation with author, East Jerusalem, 10 October 1998)
1. The Effect of the Peace Process
In 1991, at the time of the Madrid Peace
Conference, while the rest of the world was ecstatic with the hope of a
solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the faculty and students of
Bethlehem University were battling with low morale. The decline in
morale was due to the constant interruptions imposed on the education
process by the student-soldier conflicts.
In Norway in 1993, secret negotiations
between Palestinian and Israeli officials resulted in the Declarations
of Principals and Israel's recognition of the PLO as the legitimate
representative of the Palestinian people as well as the PLO’s
recognition of Israel. In the West Bank Israel sealed the borders, which
intensified the difficulties of getting to and from the university. Many
faculty members, staff and students lived in East Jerusalem and they
could never be certain what they would encounter at the checkpoint going
into Bethlehem. Often they were not permitted entry or spent hours in
line waiting to cross. The faculty found it increasingly difficult to
continue to plan classes that they were never certain of being taught.
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CHAPTER FIVE:
ENTERING A NEW ERA
A. Bethlehem
University 1995-1998
In 1994 the universities on the West Bank
came under the authority of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)
through a transfer agreement. The PNA inherited the Israeli structure of
the educational system and the military orders remained in place, the
people in charge changed. For the implementation of change the following
procedure was followed: the Palestinians would place a proposal before
the Israeli authority, and if no response came within a month the change
was implemented. Otherwise, if Israel objected to the process there
would be negotiations. (Rigby 1995:35)
1. Bethlehem Hall
Bethlehem Hall was opened in 1995 the
building houses the Faculties of Education and Nursing as well as the
Physiotherapy Degree Program and the Midwifery Diploma Program which
were formerly off-campus. In this same year it was also made possible
for the university to do so desperately needed renovations.
B. More
Closures
The
recent closure of the West Bank and Gaza has not only affected every
single aspect of life of the Palestinian people, but has also penetrated
their very souls and spirits. In spite of that, life goes on. In spite
of the closure, students continue to challenge the checkpoints for the
sake of education. . . (B.U.L. Update 1996:1)
Students living outside of Bethlehem were
stopped at checkpoints before entering the town and turned back. The
students would then try alternative routes until they would eventually
get through, often using a goat path. Only when these efforts failed
would the students give up and return home.
1. Israeli Import Taxes
Under Jordanian law universities were
exempt from import and local taxes. Prior to 1967 Birzeit, which at that
time was a two year college, received this tax exempt status (Shehadeh,
1980:93). Since 1967 and to date (1998) universities on the West Bank
must receive their shipments via Israel and are therefore required to
pay taxes on all books and equipment. If the taxes are not immediately
paid the university is charged for storage. The Library's budget is
limited and while they may be able to afford the cost of the books often
they can not afford the taxes, as in a recent case concerning two Hotel
Management books where the tax was 700 NIS. (Morcos, interview)
Initially, universities within Israel pay similar taxes but later
receive a rebate.
C. Looking
Forward
1. Tourism For Peace
Tourism for Peace was the crowning jewel
in the career of Abu Al Walid Djanai who retired from Bethlehem
University in 1998 to run the family business, the Imperial Hotel in
East Jerusalem. The Tourism for Peace program is a satellite course
offered together with Israel, France and Morocco. The classes are in
English and French and are available worldwide.
Walid Djanai explained that he had always
sent students to Eilat to the Club Med for practical training. In
keeping with this tradition he approached Jilbert Drigano, the
proprietor and Director of the club, to start an international school of
tourism and hotel management in Eilat. In response to this suggestion
Drigeno proposed the Tourism for Peace satellite program. UNESCO paid
the cost for Bethlehem University to participate and the program started
operation in 1996. (Djanai, interview)
Walid is pleased that today in the
Institute of Hotel Management and Tourism sixty percent of the students
are female. When the university first opened parents would not allow
their daughters to enroll in this program. By 1998 there was a majority
of female students and this Walid believes, is a testimony to the
success of the program within the Palestinian community. (Ibid.)
2. Business Administration
Maruf A. Dweikat, Dean of the Faculty of
Business Administration, is from Nablus and has been with the university
since 1981. Maruf remembers the difficulties of teaching off-campus and
the roadblocks in the early 1990s. Speaking with him at the university
no sense of bitterness could be detected. Maruf is looking ahead and is
excited about the 147 freshmen that the Business Department has received
and that of these new students fifty-five percent of them are male,
making this the first year that the male student population is the
majority. (Maruf Dweikat, interviewed by author, tape recording,
Bethlehem 10 October 1998)
Maruf is also proud of the contributions
the business administration has made to the local community through the
Business Development Center. This semester the Business Development
Center will be sponsoring a seminar on the subject of Import Export and
the Egyptian Embassy will be sending a speaker. This will be open to the
local business community. (Ibid.)
D.
Palestinian National Authority
1. Day-to-Day Relationship
The Public Relations Director, Musa
Darwish, explains that the university has day-to-day contact with
various levels of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). The
municipalities and the police are examples of this. According to Musa,
there are no problems between the university and the PNA. The PNA do not
interfere with the daily running of the University and there is no
pressure coming from them. (Musa Darwish, interviewed by author, tape
recording, Bethlehem 26 June 1998)
2. Cooperative Efforts
Dr. Jacqueline Sfeir, Dean of the Faculty
of Education, says that she has found the PNA to be very cooperative and
supportive. The university and the PNA are involved together with the
development of an active, experiential learning program on the national
level for grade school and it has been a very satisfying experience for
Dr. Sfeir. (Sfeir, interview)
Brother Vincent Malham, the Vice
Chancellor, further added that Bethlehem University is an authorized
official member of the Association of Palestinian Universities and as
such they have a representative with the Ministry of Education. The
university follows the Ministry's directives for tuition and salaries.
Brother Vincent says that he is satisfied with the working relationship
that exists between the university and the PNA. (Brother Vincent Malham,
interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem, 26 June 1998)
E. Student Senate
The Student Senate still calls for student
strikes for various reasons. The general form of the strike is as
follows: a speech is presented and the students gather in the courtyard.
After one class period the students return to their classes. Usually
there is no military interference during these protests.
On October 8, 1998 during the university's
Silver Jubilee Celebration, the students had a strike during the first
class period of the day. The strike was to protest the recent killings
of two Palestinians by an Israeli settler who opened fire on a group of
Palestinian teenagers. (Al-Haq 1998:7) An observant visitor would only
have noticed that the courtyard was crowded students, conversing
animatedly. They were in the classrooms for the second period class.
1. Political Parties
According to Dr. Walid Mastafa, Dean of
Students, there are three main blocs among the students; Fatah having
forty percent, the Popular Front also at forty percent and the Islamic
bloc which has a membership of twenty percent of the student body. This
year the Student Senate is working on re-writing their constitution. (Walid
Mastafa, interviewed by author, tape recording, Bethlehem, 26 September
1998)
F. Open to
Community
Brother Vincent, (Vice Chancellor) spoke
with enthusiasm about the new gate that the university installed in
1998. He states that it is a symbol that the university is open to the
community. During the time of the constant military interference in
campus life, until recent years, there was heavy metal gate which gave
the students some protection from the Israeli military, but it also
closed out the community. With the arrival of the PNA in Bethlehem the
metal gate is no longer necessary and the university wants the community
to be able to look and see that they can be apart of the University. (Malham,
interview)
1. Aesthetics
In addition to the new gate the university
has refurbished the courtyard area of the campus. There is now a
fountain and a memorial garden surrounded with flowers and trees. The
development of the university has reached a point where it is now
possible to be concerned with the aesthetics of the grounds. Since 1973
Bethlehem University has expanded from three rooms in one main building
to seven buildings.
2. Academic Calendar
Brother Neil Kieffe, Vice President of
Academic Affairs, is hopeful that this year the university will be able
to complete the calendar year as scheduled. In the history of the
Bethlehem University there has been only one semester, spring of 1995,
when there were no make up days. The fall semester of 1998 is scheduled
to end on December 22 and there is already one make up day necessary.
Brother Neil hopes this will be the only make up day and that it can be
scheduled on a Saturday so as not to extend the semester. (Brother Neil
Kieffe, telephone conversation with author, East Jerusalem, 12 October
1998)
3. Bethlehem University: An Oasis
Brother Cyril Litecky, Assistant to the
Vice Chancellor attributes a spirit of faith and perseverance for the
survival of Bethlehem University. Today he says that;
Bethlehem University is an oasis for our students, who live in an
unstable society, the University is a safe place for them to develop and
advocate ideas for betterment. (Brother Cyril Litecky, interviewed by
author, tape recording, Bethlehem, 26 June 1998)
Musa Darwesh, Public Relation Director,
comments that at the University the students are trained in democracy
and conflict resolution and that it is a place where Christians and
Moslems live together, a place where the future leaders of Palestine are
being trained. (Darwesh, interview)
G. Degree and
Diploma Programs
Today Bethlehem University offers a
Faculty of Arts offering degrees in Arabic, English, Sociology, Social
Work and a Diploma in Social Work Supervision. The Faculty of Business
Administration offers degrees in Accounting and Business. The Faculty of
Education offers degrees in Elementary Education, Secondary Education,
Pre-School Education, and Catechetics. The Faculty of Nursing offers a
degree in Nursing as well as Post- Graduate Diplomas in Midwifery,
Neo-Natal Nursing, and Clinical Supervision. The Faculty of Science has
degree programs in Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics. There are
also the diploma programs in Hotel Management, Tourism and Travel,
Pilgrim Tour Guide and Tourism for Peace.
1. Community Outreach
In line with its mission to serve the
community the university has sponsored and developed the following
centers; Business Development, Community Development and Continuing
Education, Educational Resource, Science Resource, and the Early
Childhood Development Center. They also have two Research Units, Water
and Soil Environment and Nutrition and Environment Research.
H. Effect on Emigration
One of the concerns of Pope Paul VI was
the high rate of emigration of the Palestinian, especially through going
abroad for higher education and not returning. Slowing this emigration
process was one of the motivating factors in initiating a project for
the youth of the West Bank and establishing Bethlehem University. One of
the primary goals of Bethlehem University was to provide accessible and
affordable higher education. In 1973 Bethlehem University began with 112
students in 1998 the student enrollment reached 2,067.
In addition to those students who remained
in the country to continue their education there are also those who have
returned from spending years studying abroad because Bethlehem
University has provided them with the opportunity to serve their own
people. One such example is Dr. Adan Mussallam the current Dean of the
Faculty of Arts and Chair of the Department of Humanities.
Dr. Musallam credits Bethlehem University
with bringing him back to Bethlehem where he was born. He had gone to
the United States on a scholarship to complete his high school education
and then continued eventually earning a Ph.D. Dr. Musallam said that if
it were not for Brother Joe Lowenstien, who invited him to return and
join the faculty at Bethlehem University (1981) that he would no doubt
have remained and accepted a teaching position in the United States. (Musallam,
interview)
I. Bethlehem
University's Silver Jubilee
The Jubilee Celebration took place on the
University campus October 4-10, 1998. Brother Brendan Fitzgerald and
Brother Joe Lowenstien two of the members of the founding administrative
team, were present for the celebration. In an emotional speech at the
Opening Mass Cardinal Pio Langhi applauded the growth of Bethlehem
University. Brother John Johnston FSC Superior General, in his
presentation at the Academic Convocation gave a moving summary of the
history of the University. Included in the week’s events were a Photo
Exhibition, a staff and student picnic and a Jubilee Banquet.
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CHAPTER SIX:
CONCLUSIONS
Bethlehem University embarked upon a
pioneering course in 1973 as the first Palestinian University and as one
of the first Palestinian national institutions. As a university
Bethlehem blazed the trail for the development of programs designed to
meet the community needs. As a national institution it became embroiled
in the national struggle which pitted students against the foreign
administration for many years.
Almost from the day of its opening
Bethlehem University was plagued with disruptions due to the political
situation, military roadblocks, closings and student strikes. More than
once these disruptions threatened to destroy the future of the
institution. The administration and students faced difficulties in their
relationship almost from the day of opening.
The students, who were involved in the
national struggle found it impossible to separate education from this
cause. The Administrators, as educators, believed the continuation of
the academic process to be of primary importance and were not tolerant
of the student strikes, which brought in the Israeli military and would
cause closings of the University.
As the national struggle escalated the
students and professors were at times arrested. The administration had
to face the Israeli military head on in order to visit the prisoners.
When in 1987 the universities on the West Bank were closed for three
years the administration and students joined together to keep the
academic process going. This was done through a complex series of
off-campus classes. The walls of mistrust were torn down and a
relationship of understanding and cooperation developed. Both the
administration and the students grew and learned through the years of
the Intifada. Brother Joe Lowenstien says that through his
experience with the Palestinian students he has learned that human
rights are more important than education. Dr. Jacqueline Sfeir, one of
the first students concludes that the administration had always been
willing to be a catalyst for change and has been here to serve. (Sfeir,
interview) Although in the early stages of development the national
struggle threatened to destroy the university and the students’
relationship with the administration, it in the end joined them together
and directed the development of some of the programs. An example of this
is the Physical Therapy program that was developed because of the number
of young people disabled by injuries incurred during the Intifada.
Bethlehem University has realized its
goals, offering a university education easily accessible for the high
school graduates of the West Bank and Gaza. The university is a member
of a numerous accreditation institutions. Students who have graduated
from Bethlehem University have successfully completed graduate studies
at universities in the United States, Europe, and a variety of Arab
countries.
1. Relevance of the University in Palestinian Society
Bethlehem University from the beginning
was concerned with the quality of education available on the West Bank
and Gaza Strip and immediately incorporated into their program a scheme
to further train and qualify teachers.
The Pre-School Teachers program has
revolutionized early education and the graduates of this program are
able to secure immediate employment. The University also targeted the
intermediate classes, fifth through tenth, and developed the Subject
Area Teachers (SAT) program designed to train teachers for these
specific groups. The university also offers an Advanced Diploma in
Education for undergraduates to qualify as teachers for the secondary
cycle. In addition, the university maintains a center for workshops to
upgrade active teachers. (Fasheh, interview)
The English Department sponsors workshops
for English Language Teachers as well as offering courses to the
community. All full-time students must complete three classes in English
regardless of their degree program. English is an international language
and this emphasis has increased graduates’ employment opportunities and
has assisted the community in relating to the many Non Government
Organizations. (Aziz Khalil, interviewed by author, tape recording, 2
February 1999, Bethlehem)
The Sociology Department has helped the
students and the community in understanding social interactions and the
reasons for the sources of problems within the context of the
Palestinian community and problems which result from interaction with
other communities. (Suha Hindijah, interviewed by author, tape
recording, 2 February, 1999, Bethlehem)
The University’s Research Units have made
available to the community the results of their research. An example of
one research result is the Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit (WSERU)
which was founded in 1988 by the Chemistry Department. The WSERU keeps
an ongoing database on water quality in the West Bank and Gaza and upon
request supplies the municipal authorities with information and
assistance on water quality. Water and Soil analysis is available as is
information on the sewerage conduits in the Kidron Valley, Bethlehem and
the surrounding areas.
Through the Nursing and Hotel Management
programs the attitudes regarding the professions which are suitable for
women have changed. This attitude change has helped to improve the
position of women within the Palestinian community. Graduates of these
programs are able to secure immediate employment.
The university has given young
Palestinians from all over the West Bank and Gaza the opportunity to
interact. This social interaction has helped them to understand people
from outside their villages and has helped them to understand themselves
in the context of the Palestinian society. The traditional walls that
stood between male and female interaction have also been broken down
through the coed classes and an attitude of acceptance based on equality
is emerging.
Bethlehem University has also succeeded in
the goal of training leaders one such example is Kamel Hamuid, the
Director General of Internal Affairs with the Palestinian National
Authority. Kamel was an English major and due to the political struggles
it took him ten years to complete his course work. He now enjoys the
benefits of his perseverance and is an example of a leader who received
training at Bethlehem University.
Students at the University today have a
sense of pride about learning the history of Palestine in a Palestinian
university. They appreciate the opportunity to interact with young
Palestinians from other areas as well as the sense of connection with
the international community. It is a safe place to exchange ideas and to
discuss current issues. It is a national institution that offers them
hope for the future, for their future and the future of Palestine.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Articles in Journals
Al-haq,
1998 Press Releases
Baramki, Gabi, 1987 Building Palestine
Universities Under Occupation. Journal of Palestinian
Studies 17,1: 12-20.
Barghouti, Iyad, 1991 Religion and
Politics Among the Students of the Najah National University.
Middle Eastern Studies
27,2: 203-218.
BUL
= Bethlehem University Library,
1996 Editorial. 1998
Historical Background.
Gerner, Deborah. J., 1989 Israeli
Restrictions on the Palestinian Universities in the Occupied
WestBank and Gaza.
Journal of Arab Affairs 8,1: 74-123.
Gordon, Haim and Rivca, 1993 The Response
of Israel Academics to the Intifada. Peace Reasearch
25,3: 83-92
Hayton, Bill, 1992 The Pressures on
Palestinian Universities. Middle East International 428:17-18.
Hazboun, Elsa.
B.U.L.
Special Collections—Palestiniana Division.
Bethlehem University Library
B.U.L. Update.
1996 Editorial. "Yes The
Scholarship Should Continue"
Bethlehem University
Library B.U.L. Update.
Johnson, Penny, 1988 West Bank Student
Movements. Journal of Palestine Studies 17,3:
100-105.
Palestinian Universities Under Occupation. 17,2: 143-150. 1989
Palestinian Universities
Under Occupation 15
August to 15 November. 18,2: 92-100.
Morrison, Micah,
P.L.O. State: Where Arafat's A Big
Man on Campus. The New
Republic, 190,20: 9-11.
Israelis-Palestinians and the Politics of
Higher Education Under Occupation. Journal of South Asian
and Middle Eastern
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Sullivan, Anthony T., 1994 Palestinian
Universities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Muslim World
84,01-02: 168-188.
Szpiro, George, 1987 A University Under
Occupation. Swiss Review of World Affairs 37,8: 12-13.
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Books
ASP = A Survey of Palestine in December
1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-
American Committee of Inquiry. Volume II. Jerusalem.
Abu Amr, Ziad, 1994 The Intifada Causes
and Factors of Continuity. East Jerusalem: PASSIA.
al-Zaroo, Salah, 1989 Higher Education
in the Occupied Territories. Hebron. University Graduate
Union Research Center.
Anabtawi, Samir N., 1986 Palestinian
Higher Education in the West Bank and Gaza. London. KPI.
Auri, Naseer H., Ed., 1984 Universities
under Occupation Another Front in the War Against Palestine.
Pp. 319-338 in
Occupation Israel Over Palestine. London. Zed Books Ltd.
B'TSELEM, 1990 The System of Taxation
In The West Bank And The Gaza Strip As an Instrument for
the Enforcement of
Authority During the Uprising. Jerusalem.
1991 The
Interrogation of Palestinians During the Intifada: Ill-Treatment,
"Moderate Physical
Pressure" or Torture?
Jerusalem.
1998
Routine Torture: Interrogation Methods Of The General Security Service.Jerusalem.
BUA = Bethlehem University Archives
BUA Draft = Unpublished, undated draft of
the History of Bethlehem University in the Bethlehem
University Archives.
Cohen, Michael J.,
Palestine and the Great Powers 1945-1948.
Princeton. Princeton University Press.
Fasheh, Munir, 1984 Impact on Education
in Occupation Israel Over Palestine. Pp. 295-318.
London. Zed Books Ltd.
Graham-Brown, Sarah, 1984 Education
Repression and Liberation. London. World University Service.
1984 The
Economic Consequences of the Occupation in Occupation Israel Over
Palestine.
Pp. 167-222.
London. Zed Books Ltd.
1984
Impact on Social Structure in Occupation Israel Over Palestine.
Pp. 223-254. London.
Zed Books Ltd.
Hanf, Theodore, and Sabella, Bernard, 1996
A Date with Democracy: Palestinians on Society and
Politics: An
Empirical Survey. Germany: Arnold Bergstraesser Institute.
Heiberg, Marianne, and Ovensen, Geir, 1994
Palestinian Society in Gaza, West Bank and Arab
Jerusalem. A Survey
of Living Conditions. Oslo, Norway: FAFO.
Ishaq, Smith, 1982 The Living
Conditions in the Villages of Bethlehem/Ramallah District: A Pilot Study
Bethlehem.
Bethlehem: Bethlehem University.
JMCC = Jerusalem Media Communication
Centre
1989
Palestinian Education A Threat to Israel's Security?. Jerusalem:
JMCC.
1990
Lessons Of Occupation Palestinian Higher Education During the
Uprising. Jerusalem: JMCC.
Israeli Military Orders in the Occupied Palestinian West Bank 1967 1992:
Jerusalem: JMCC.
1994
Water the Red Line. Jerusalem. JMCC
Khalidi, Walid, 1991 Before Their
Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians 1876-1948.
Washington DC:
Institute for Palestine Studies.
Khameyseh, Rasem, 1989 Israeli Planning
and House Demolishing Policy in the West Bank. East
Jerusalem: PASSIA.
Kimmerling, Baruch, and Migdal, Joel S.,
1994 Palestinians The Making Of a People. Cambridge,
Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press.
Kuttab, Jonathan, 1981 Analysis of
Military Order Number 854 and Related Orders Concerning
Educational
Institutions In The Occupied West Bank. Ramallah: Law in the Service
of Man.
1980 The West Bank and the Rule of Law.
Ramallah: The International Commission of Jurists.
Kuttab, Jonathan and Shehadeh, 1982
Civilian Administration In The Occupied West Bank.
Ramallah: Law in
the Service of Man.
Johnston, Brother John, 1998 Bethlehem
University: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow: A University for a
New Palestine.
Silver Jublilee Academic Convocation 5 October 1998.
Latendresse, Anne, 1995 Jerusalem
Palestinian Dynamics, Resistance and Urban Change 1967-1994.
East Jerusalem:
PASSIA.
Manuel, Jean, 1998 Memories of a
Foundation. Bethlehem.
Ma’oz, Moshe,
Palestinian Leadership on the West Bank:
The Changing Role of the Arab Mayors Under
Jordan and Israel.
Totowa: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd.
Moffett, Roadstrum Martha, 1989
Perpetual Emergency: A Legal Analysis of Israel's Use Of The British
Defense (Emergency)
Regulations, 1945, in the Occupied Territories. Ramallah: Al-Haq.
Nassar, Jamal R., and Heacock, Roger, Ed.,
1990 The Revolutionary Transformation of the
Palestinians Under
Israeli Occupation. Pp. 191-206 in Intifada Palestine at the
Crossroads. New
York: Praeger.
1990 The
Future Light of the Past. Pp. 309-316 in Intifada Palestine at
the Crossroads. London:
Zed Books Ltd.
Nijim, Basheer Khalil, and Muammar,
Bishara, Ed.
1984 Toward the De-Arabization of
Palestine/Israel 1945-1977. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.
Rabah, Jamil, and Fairweather, Natasha
(compiled), 1993 Israeli Military Orders in the Occupied
Palestinian West Bank
1967 1992. Jerusalem: JMCC.
Ramsden, Sally, and Senker, Cath, 1993
Learning the Hard Way; Palestinian Education in the West
Bank, Gaza Strip, Israel.
London: World University Service.
Rigby, Andrew, 1995 Palestinian
Education The Future Challenge. East Jerusalem: PASSIA.
1991 The
Struggle Over Education Pp. 98-110 in Living the Intifada.
London: Zed Books Ltd.
Roberts, Adam; Joergensen, Boel; and
Newman,Frank, 1984 Academic Freedom Under Israeli Military
Occupation Report of WUS/ICJ
Mission of Enquiry into Higher Education in the West Bank and
Gaza. London: World
University Service (UK) and International Commission of Jurists.
Sadiki, Larbi, 1992 Progress and
Retrogression in Arab Democratization. East Jerusalem: PASSIA.
Shehadeh, Raja, 1980 The West Bank And
The Rule Of Law. Ramallah: The International Commission of
Jurists.
1985
Occupier's Law Israel And The West Bank. Washington DC: Institute
for Palestine Studies.
1995
The Law of the Land Settlements and Land Issues Under Israeli
Military Occupation. East
Jerusalem: PASSIA
Steinberg, Paul, and Oliver, A.M., 1994
The Graffiti Of The Intifada. East Jerusalem: PASSIA.
Sullivan, Anthony Thrall, 1988
Palestinian Universities Under Occupation. Cairo: The American
University in Cairo
Press.
Tamari, Salim, 1990 The Revolt of the
Petite Bourgeoisie Urban Merchants and the Palestinian
Uprising. Pp.
159-174 in Intifada Palestine at the Crossroads. New York:
Praeger Publishers.
1984
Israel's Search for a Native Pillar The Village Leagues. Pp.
376-390 in Occupation Israel
Over Palestine.
London: Zed Books Ltd.
Tarak, Lisa, 1990 The Development of
Political Consciousness Among Palestinians in the
Occupied
Territories 1967-1987. Pp. 53-72 in Intifada Palestine at the
Crossroads. New York:
Praeger Publishers.
White, Patrick, 1992 Children of
Bethlehem. London: World Service London.
1989
Palestinians and Higher Education: The Doors of Learning Closed.
London: World University
Service.
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Interviews by Author
Al-Jawad, Hasan Abed:
1998 26 September 1998. Bethlehem.
Alhousani, Waseem:
1999 2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Bannoure, Fawdi:
1998 6 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Brennan, Sister Mary:
1998 26 June. Bethlehem University.
Darwish, Musa:
1998 29 June. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Diaz, Sister Mary:
1998 3 July. Bethlehem University.
Djanai, Abu Al Walid:
1998 3 October. Imperial Hotel, East Jerusalem.
Tape recorded.
Dweikat, Maruf:
1998 16 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Fashew, Violet:
1999 5 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Fellemon, George:
1998 1 October. East Jerusalem. Telephone.
Fitzgerald, Brendan:
1998 6 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Hamadan, Ziad:
1999 2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Hashweh, Shafiqa:
1996 25 December. Jerusalem. Personal communication.
Hazboun, Elsa:
1995 3 July. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Hindiyah, Suha:
1999 2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Katanacho, Hanna:
1999 24 February. Bethlehem. Tape recorded.
Khalil, Aziz: 1999
2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Kieffe, Brother Neil:
1998 12 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Litecy, Brother Cyril:
1998 25 June. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Lowenstien, Joe:
1998 3 July. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Malham, Brother Vincent:
1998 26 June. Bethlehem University.
Tape recorded.
Manuel, Jean: 1998
4 July. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Morcos, Mary: 1998
3 July. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Mastafa, Walid:
1998 6 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Mufdi, Nabeel:
1998 6 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Musallam, Adan:
1998 6 October. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Naser, Hanna: 1999
22 February. Jerusalem. Telephone.
Odeh, Fatin: 1999
2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Sabella, Bernard:
1997 4 September. Jerusalem.
Scarpa, Brother David:
1998 9 September. Bethlehem University.
Tape recorded.
Sfeir, Jacqueline:
1998 9 September. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Shaheen, Magdi:
1999 2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
Takroury, Jihad:
1999 2 February. Bethlehem University. Tape recorded.
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